ПОЗНАВАТЕЛЬНОЕ

Оси и плоскости тела человека - Тело человека состоит из определенных топографических частей и участков, в которых расположены органы, мышцы, сосуды, нервы и т.д.

Отёска стен и прирубка косяков - Когда на доме не достаёт окон и дверей, красивое высокое крыльцо ещё только в воображении, приходится подниматься с улицы в дом по трапу.

Дифференциальные уравнения второго порядка (модель рынка с прогнозируемыми ценами) - В простых моделях рынка спрос и предложение обычно полагают зависящими только от текущей цены на товар.

Dashboard (n) –приборная доска

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The dashboard contains all control devices.

VOCABULARY EXERCISES.

A. Complete the following sentences with the words from the list.

versatile mounted by means of

equipment intertillage cereal crops

track-wheel tractor 33

1. Different tillage accessories are ……… on the tractor.

2. We obtained good tillage …….. the application of trailing agricultural implements.

3. Tea and berry plantations require special …….. .

4. …….. are preferable for water logged soils.

5. …….. means the tillage between the rows.

6. Farmers cultivate almost all kinds of ………..

7. What is the most ……… tractor?

B. Cross out the word that is wrong.

1. The increase of crop yield largely depends on the quality of (land reclamation /water logging ).

2. The ventilation of the ( hood / cab ) has greatly improved the labour conditions of tractor operators.

3. The heart of the tractor is its (dashboard / power unit ).

4.The engine is ( mounted / hauled ) on the subframe.

5. The tractor can be ( obtained / applied ) for earth-moving and road-building jobs and for transport needs.

6. The developing food industry needs more ( cereal crops / logging ).

7. These ( loads / implements ) are intended for retarding weed growth.

C. Choose the synonymous pairs of words.

with the help of to apply

to pull by means of

choice to haul

to use alternative

set assembly

classification to obtain

to get arrangement

corn power unit

motor maize

D. Translate the following “chains’ of words. 34

belt pulley land reclamation row crop

field work orchard tractor tea plantation

power unit berry plantation wheel-type tractor

highway tractor control mechanism track-type tractor

design adaptations traction mechanism power take-off attachments

E. Read and translate the following words.

tractor, machinery, source, machines, to operate, construction, irrigation, to class, standard, adapted, plantation, type, efficient, to compress, basic, model, principles, system, controls, accessories, energy, mechanical, to transmit, to transform, hydraulic.

F. Skim the text.

Begin your answer with the words: “ Этот текст о ….”

G. Read the text bellow and answer the following questions.

1. What is a tractor?

2. Where can tractors be used?

3. How can tractors be classified?

4. What are the main tractor assemblies?

TEXT A. CLASSIFICATION OF TRACTORS.

The term tractor is applied to a self-propelling vehicle on wheels or tracks capable of hauling trailing or mounted agricultural implements, earth-moving equipment, various machinery, and load-carrying body.

The tractor is also a source of power for various stationary machines which are operated by means of a belt pulley.

Tractors are used in multitude of power applications in agriculture, construction, logging, trucking, irrigation and land reclamation.

Modern agricultural tractors can be classed in the following way:

1) By application, into:

a) standard tractors, designed to propel and power tillage, sowing, cultivation, and harvesting implements used on cereal crops; 35

b) all-purpose tractors, primarily adapted for intertillage and harvesting of row crops, such as beet, cotton, maize, etc., but useful in other field works;

c) orchard tractors, also employed on tea plantations and vineyards.

2) By means of obtaining traction, into:

a) wheel-type tractors;

b)track-type tractors and crawlers.

The wheel-type tractor is cheaper to buy and operate than its track-type counterpart and weighs less than the latter. It is also a more versatile power unit, as compared with the crawler, and finds its application in row and truck crops, orchards, berry plantations and as a highway tractor.

But where efficient operation on soils either water-logged or unstable is of primary concern, the crawler is a better alternative. The crawler is also less vulnerable to skidding and compresses the soil to a lesser extent than is the case with the wheeled tractor.

Orchard tractors are predominantly design adaptations of basic models.

The tractor is a complex vehicle made up of various assemblies which interact with one another in a certain way. The assemblies may vary from tractor to tractor as to their design and arrangement, but the principles of construction and operation are always the same.

The main tractor assemblies are: the engine, power-transmitting system, traction mechanism, controls power take-off attachments and accessories.

The engine serves to convert the heat energy of fuel into mechanical work.

The power-transmitting system is intended to transmit the rotary motion of the crankshaft to the drive sprockets.

The traction mechanism serves to transform the rotary motion of the drive sprockets into forward motion of the tractor.

The power take-off attachments include a hydraulic lifting and control mechanism.

The accessories include the cab with a cushioned seat, hood, lighting equipment, horn, dashboard, toolbox, etc.

The operator’s comfort depends to a great measure on cab design. This is why it should meet special requirements. These vary with tractor type, seasonal and climatic conditions. General requirements may be summed up as follows.

The layout and internal dimensions of the cab should give the operator ample freedom of movement, easy access to controls, convenient and safe exit through the door. Good visibility from the cab is also essential. The cab must be well sealed against ingress of dust, exhaust gases and fuel vapours. Cab ventilation should provide for sufficient air exchange and filtration of incoming air.

H. Choose the correct answer to complete each statement.

1. The term tractor is applied to

a. self-propelled vehicle on wheels or tracks;

b. a source of power; 36

c. various assemblies;

d. power-transmitting system.

2. Tractors are used in:

a. agriculture;

b. construction;

c. irrigation;

d. all of the above.

3. The wheel-type tractor is:

a. less versatile power units;

b. cheaper;

c. heavier;

d. more difficult to operate.

4. Crawler is used:

a. in row crops;

b. on berry plantations;

c. on water-logged soils;

d. in orchards.

5. Orchard tractors are:

a. conventional tractors;

b. design adaptation of basic model;

c. highway tractor;

d. complex vehicles.

6. The power transmitting system is used:

a. to transmit the rotary motion of the crankshaft to the drive sprockets;

b. to convert the heat energy of fuel into mechanical work;

c. to transform the rotary motion of the drive sprockets into forward motion of the tractor;

d. to perform a hydraulic lifting.

7. The comfort of a driver depends on:

a. climate conditions;

b. conditions of soil;

c. cab design;

d. type of a tractor.

8. The cab must be protected from:

a. insect pests;

b. dust and exhaust gases;

c. other tractor drivers;

d. vibration. 37

I. Translate the following combinations of words. Remember about the translation of Participle II in the function of an attribute.

mounted agricultural implements;

standard tractors designed to propel implements;

implements used on cereal crops;

all-purpose tractors adopted for intertillage;

orchard tractors employed on tea plantations;

wheeled tractor;

complex vehicle made up of various assemblies.

J. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the translation of Participle II.

1. The described method is widely used in industry.

2. An overheated steel will have poor mechanical properties.

3. The equipment used for this work is similar to that used in hot working.

4. The equipment tested required further improvement.

5. The amount of heat generated depended on the quality of the fuel used.

6. A chisel is a tool made of very hard steel.

7. The advantage of a diesel engine lies in the high efficiency obtained.

8. In the operation of a gas engine the number of strokes required to complete the cycle varies with the type of engines.

9. The life of an engine depends upon the care given to it.

K. Answer the following questions to text A in a written form.

1. What is a tractor capable of?

2. What is a standard tractor used for?

3. What is an orchard tractor used for?

4. What are the advantages of a wheel-type tractor?

5. What are the advantages of a crawler?

6. What are the accessories of a tractor?

L. Read and translate with the dictionary the two last paragraphs of the text.

Answer the following question:

The operator’s cab should meet special requirements. What are they?

VOCABULARY. TEXT B.

to mention – упоминать;

bogland – заболоченная земля;

marsh – болото;

to draw – тащить, тянуть;

ploughing – вспашка;

sowing – посев;

harvesting – уборка урожая;

mowing – косьба, покос;

to dig – копать;

ditch – канава;

to uproot – выкорчевывать;

stump – пень;

caterpillar – гусеница, гусеничный;

lumbering – лесозаготовки;

skidding tractor – трелевочный трактор;

PTO – (power take off ) – отбор мощности, отвод мощности;

virgin – целина;

long-fallow land – залежная земля;

breaker plough – плуг для целины.

A. . Read and translate the text given below. 39

TEXT B. THE TRACTOR.

Speaking of farm machines, the tractor must necessarily be mentioned in the first place. To-day one cannot imagine practically any agricultural work done without a tractor. This steel horse is always ready for a job, day and night in any weather. With ease and grace it cuts through hard soil, sand and snow, bogland and marshes. Having a mighty pulling power, a tractor can pass through any difficult ground.

No other vehicle is better adapted to haul and work all kinds of agricultural machinery and implements than a tractor. It is a machine usually powered with a gasoline or Diesel engine and is used to draw and work agricultural implements for ploughing, sowing, harvesting, mowing and a large variety of other jobs. A tractor is also used to cut roads, dig ditches and pits, uproot stumps, cut the bush, etc. The tractor can be wheel or caterpillar type. The former is more powerful. Versatile and economic as it is, the tractor finds in fact no end of useful applications in farming, not to speak of lumbering where skidding tractors are the best means of bringing cut timber from out of the forest. Tractors can be used both for stationary and field work. Many agricultural machines are tractor-propelled, that is to say there is a power take off (PTO) to the tractor-hauled implement; or else, the farming devices are tractor-borne. On virgin and long-fallow lands heavy tractors with breaker ploughs are essential.

Land reclamation on boglands, calling for drainage, requires heavy-type tractors to which bog-and-brush ploughs are attached. Of course, as other machines, the tractor is being constantly improved and is highly adapted to everyday jobs on every farm.

B. Choose the correct answer to the following questions.

1. Which of these farm machines must be mentioned on the first place?

a. combine;

b. cotton picker;

c. tractor;

d. harrow;

2. What time is tractor ready for a job?

a. day;

b. night;

c. afternoon;

d. day and night;

3. What engine is used to power a tractor? 40

a. steam;

b. diesel;

c. diesel or gasoline;

d. gasoline;

4. What agricultural implements is a tractor used to draw?

a. only for harvesting and ploughing;

b. for moving;

c. for sowing and harvesting;

d. ploughing, sowing, harvesting and mowing;

5. What kinds of tractors are mentioned in the text?

a. wheel tractors and tracks;

b. skidding tractors and wheel;

c. caterpillar tractor and track;

d. wheel tractor, caterpillar, skidding tractor;

6. What tractors are of primary importance on long-fallow lands?

a. wheel tractor;

b. tractors with breaker ploughs;

c. caterpillar;

d. skidding tractors;

7. What tractors are widely used on lumbering?

a. high way tractors;

b. skidding;

c. wheel tractors;

d. track;

C. Read and study the meaning of the following abbreviations met in the text below.

hp – horse power –мощность (в лошадиных силах);

bhp – brake horse power – тормозная мощность;

gph – gallons per hour – галлонов в час;

ha – hectare –гектар;

km/h -- kilometers per hour – километров в час;

mm – millimeter – миллиметр;

r.p.m. – revolution per minute – оборотов в минуту. 41

D. Read the text bellow and answer the following questions.

1. What are the main trends in designing new tractors?

2. What is the heart of the tractor?

3. What are the most important features of the T-150?

4. What are the basic technical data of the T-150 crawler-type tractor?

TEXT C. TRENDS IN TRACTOR DESIGN.

It is known that the need for more food, feed and industrial crops regularly grows. Farmers usually meet these ever increasing demands by increasing crop yields. This largely depends on the quality of the machinery supplied by tractor and agricultural engineering industry. The most important machine used on farms is the tractor. The heart of the tractor is its power unit, that is, the engine.

The main trend adopted in designing new tractors and other farm machinery is as follows:

---- to increase the capacity of an engine, mainly by increasing its power and field speed;

---- to improve the design of transmission, chassis and the engine;

---- to reduce fuel consumption and maintenance time;

---- to improve labour conditions for tractor operators, etc.

The designers said that this trend result in basic improvements in tractor design. As a result, for example, both the wheeled and track-type general purpose tractors T-150 used in conjunction with trailing or mounted machines and implements are now able to perform not only the number of routine operations, such as soil cultivation, sowing and harvesting, but also land reclamation, earth-moving and other jobs. Of great importance now is that both the wheeled and the crawler models have up to 70% of standardized parts, which is of great importance.

The most important feature of the T-150 is its high power which provides higher field speeds as compared to other general-purpose tractors. Its other important feature is the dual transmission system. The tractor is equipped with an all-metal cab which may be heated and ventilated. The cab had greatly improved labour conditions.

The basic technical data (specifications) of the T-150 crawler-type tractor are as follows:

engine power – 150 hp, at 2000 r.p.m.

fuel consumption per brake horse power – 185 gph

range of speeds – 2.68 to 15.89 km/h

average soil compacting pressure – 0,44 kg/cm²

mass (weight) – 7400 kg.

E. Read the above text again and retell it in Russian.

F. Read the text “HILLSIDE TRACTOR” attentively and fill in the table given below the text.

HILLSIDE TRACTOR.

It is a general purpose crawler. It is intended for performing various agricultural and forestry jobs in conjunction with mounted machines and implements. The tractor operates by a shuttle method on mountaneous slopes with gradient up to20°.

The shuttle method of soil cultivation means that the tractor with front- and rear-mounted implements moves back and forth without turning at the end of the plots. On the forward run the rear-mounted implement is in the working position, while the front-mounted implement is in the transport position. During the reverse run the front-mounted implement is in the working position, while the rear-mounted one is in the transport position.

1. Type of the tractor 2. Purpose of use 3. Method of work 4.The way of movement

G. Read the text “TRACTOR “KIROVETS” attentively and fill in the table given below the text.

Notes to the text.

stubble breaking – лущение стерни;

reverse reduction gear –реверс;

reducing gear box –ходоуменьшитель

TRACTOR “KIROVETS”.

It is a wheeled general-purpose model. It is intended for plowing, cultivation, harrowing, sowing stubble-breaking, snow retention and other agricultural operations. When additionally fitted with reverse reduction gear, PTO shaft, and an auxiliary reducing gear-box, it can be used for land reclamation, road-building and earth digging operations. It has a comfortable cab with well-arranged controls which can be heated and ventilated.

1. Type of a tractor 2. Purpose of use 3.Additional use 4. Cab state

H. Read and translate the following texts using a dictionary.

TEXT A.

The most significant development of recent years has been the steady evolution of tractors which are specially designed for use with “tractor-mounted” implements, mounted directly on the tractor itself and raised and lowered by means of a power lift. The “row-crop” tractor which was especially designed for work between the rows of growing crops has become an “all-purpose” machine. This group of tractors includes both 3-wheeled and 4-wheeled machines specially designed for row-crop work. .The modern row-crop tractor possesses the following distinctive features which enable it to work between crops drilled in rows:1) high ground clearance; 2) wheels with narrow rims; 3) wheels adjustable for various widths of rows; 4) a small turning radius; and 5) special lifting for the attachment of various tools.

When row-crop tractors appeared the cultivator was mounted on the tractor, making a single unit of the power and the machine. Soon other machines – ploughs, planters, mowers, potato diggers, etc. – were tractor-mounted; they were combined with the tractor into integral, fast-moving, fast-working units.

TEXT B.

TRACKLAYING TRACTORS. Tracklayers are designed to secure good adhesion and transmit high drawbar pulls in different conditions, where wheels fail to secure an adequate grip on the soil. They are particularly suitable for use on steep hill-sides, on heavy lands, on fen land where particularly deep cultivations are required, and in all conditions where running wheels over the land may harm the soil structure. For one or more of these reasons tracklayers are preferred for many types of field work, but they suffer from the disadvantages of high first cost and high cost of overhaul when repairs or replacements are needed.

Tracks are preferred for land clearing and reclamation, for building farm ponds, preparing land for irrigation, making and maintaining irrigation ditches.

TEXT C.

Farm mechanization has had far-reaching effects on farming. It has made our agriculture more efficient and more productive. Tractor-operated machines are now commonly used for almost all operations in crop production.

Today’s farm tractor can : 1) pull machines behind it; 2) push machines in front of it; 3) operate machines mounted upon it; 4) transmit power to machines through its power take-off; 5) raise, lower, and control machines and attachments by hydraulic power from the tractor; 6) drive machines by belt power; 7) transmit power through flexible shafts; 8) furnish power for fast highway transportation and hauling; 9) generate electricity to drive electric motors which furnish power to machines drawn by the tractor, and electricity to operate electrically driven tools.

UNIT 4

FARM MACHINERY.

VOCABULARY. TEXTA.

tillage (n) -- обработка почвы;

Tillage is the first step in crop cultivation.

seeding (n) – посев;

Seeding is necessary to do in proper time and well prepared soil.

to retard (v) – задерживать, замедлять;

Weeds retard the growth of cultivated plants. 45

weed (n) –сорняк;

Herbicides are widely used for weed control.

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