ПОЗНАВАТЕЛЬНОЕ

Оси и плоскости тела человека - Тело человека состоит из определенных топографических частей и участков, в которых расположены органы, мышцы, сосуды, нервы и т.д.

Отёска стен и прирубка косяков - Когда на доме не достаёт окон и дверей, красивое высокое крыльцо ещё только в воображении, приходится подниматься с улицы в дом по трапу.

Дифференциальные уравнения второго порядка (модель рынка с прогнозируемыми ценами) - В простых моделях рынка спрос и предложение обычно полагают зависящими только от текущей цены на товар.

Characteristics of non-verbal communication

1 23

Personal space is the mean of nonverbal communication. Territory is - a zone or space that a person regards as his personal. It seems to be a continuation of his body. Each person has his own personal territory. This is the zone that exists around her property - the house and garden, enclosed by fence, car interior, bedroom, favorite chair and airspace around the body. The airspace of the man ("air dome") depends on the population density where man grew up; it is determined by the cultural environment, social status of the individual. Research has established that the radius of airspace around a man of middle class of the developed civilized countries is almost identical. It can be divided into four main zones: intimate, personal, social and public.

Intimate zone (15 to 45 cm) - people perceive it as personal property. Only the closest people are allowed to enter it. They may be parents, children, that is, family members, doctors, fashion designers, dance partners, close friends and relatives. Personal Zone (from 46 cm to 1.22 m) – this distance is kept between the people at parties, official receptions, friendly meetings or at work. Social Zone (from 1.22 to 3.6 m) – is the distance of interaction with outsiders. Public Zone (over 3.6 m) - if you speak to a group of people, such a distance is the best.

If you want people to feel comfortable in your company, keep your distance. In public transport, the public events in places with large concentrations of people a person obeys the unwritten rules, therefore it just does not respond to others in their intrusions into the intimate zone. But situation is different during the meeting, in the crowd, where people share a common purpose. As soon as the crowd density increases personal space decreases, people have a sense of hostility and aggression. It is well known to police, who always tries to split the crowd into smaller groups. Getting personal space, a man is getting calmer. The investigators often use the technique of intrusion into personal space to break the resistance of a suspect during questioning. Managers also use this approach to get information from subordinates, who hide it for some reason. But if a seller uses this approach, he makes a grave mistake: mutual respect arises only when limits are available and they are treated with respect (C. Schwebel).

Protection of personal space is one of the basic principles of non-verbal communication. The desire to save a considerable distance is a sign of lack of confidence, increased anxiety. And vice versa - calm, confident man cares less about the inviolability "of its borders". People prone to aggression, are characterized by aggravated sensitivity to the violation of personal space.

These conclusions were made as a result of relevant studies and psychological experiments. It is known, for example, that the speaker often reduces distance of communication, to create the effect of trust in the audience, to provide more "open" communication. The results of observations showed that people do not like having behind uncontrolled space. Therefore, to feel comfortable in any situation, try to take a position not to feel the emptiness behind. If you allow the other party to take the same "safe" position, you deprive him unconscious inconvenience.

According to the study of the Estonian researcher M. Heydmets if the goal of communication is the competition, people sit opposite each other, and if cooperation – next to each other. That is, pose of the communication partner, the distance at which he is located, can accurately assess his mood and intentions. Spatial location of business partners influences the effectiveness of communication. There are four basic positions of placement at the table during business meetings, negotiations: 1) angular placement of people engaged in friendly conversation; this placement promotes continuous eye contact and provides space for gestures of the interlocutors and the opportunity to observe the gestures of another person; angle acts as a barrier in case of threat from the interlocutor (You can hide behind it); 2) the position of business interactions: when two people are working in collaboration on the problem or project, they usually take the position of business interactions; it is the most advantageous position for presentation, discussion and development of common solutions, it is important not to violate the territory of the partnership; 3) competitive - defensive position - the position opposite each other, in the result each party holds its views, as the table is a barrier between them, they keep subordination; 4) an independent position - a position occupied by people who do not want to interact with each other, uninterested in business.

To establish contact between business partners it is important to choosethe type of tablefor negotiations. Square table helps create a relationship of competition and is suitable for a short business conversation or to emphasis subordination. It should be noted that cooperative relationship are established more quickly with the man who sits at the table next to you, but the man sitting on your right understands you better than the one who sits on your left. Someone who sits opposite you resists you greatly. Round table creates an atmosphere of ease and is the best way for conversations between people of equal status, so that everyone at the table has the same space. However, if the head is at the table, the honorable place is considered to the right of him and closer to him, and faraway place is competing. At the rectangular table the best "dominant" place is considered when a person sits facing the door.

Visual contact has a significant impact on human behavior during communication. The eyes can tell a lot about a person and become a reliable signal in the communication process, because they are the main center of the human body, "the mirror of the soul." In a different light the pupil of the eye may widen or narrow, and the mood can change from negative to positive or vice versa. If the person is excited, its pupils are widening and can become four times larger than its normal size. Conversely, if the mood is negative, irritated man, the pupils are narrowed to a minimum - "eye-beads" ("snake eyes").

To establish contact with the interlocutor, partner the looks should meet for 60-70% during conversation. It will force your friend to treat you with the sympathy. It is not surprising that the nervous shy man whose eyes is constantly "runs" and meets the eyes of the interlocutor less than 30% during conversation is less trusted.

When you are getting ready to participate in business negotiations, you should not wear dark glasses because the partners will feel a kind of discomfort.

"Geographic" zone of the partner’s face and body, where you look at, is also important. During the negotiations on the face of the partner it is advisable to imagine a kind of triangle (the point in the middle of the forehead and eyes). Focusing your eyes in the middle of this zone, you will make an impression of a serious man. Your partner will feel that you are responsible and reliable person.

Scientists distinguish three types of looks:

• Business - partners look at the imaginary triangle that is placed on the forehead. It provides keeping looks at a similar level; if your look does not fall below the eye level of your partner, you can to keep the conversation under control;

• social - partners pay attention to the triangle, which runs through the line of the eyes to the chin;

• intimate - a series of looks from social to the imaginary triangles on other parts of the body.

To establish total control over the look of the interlocutor at the visual presentation, use a pen or pointer to show something and at the same time to tell about it. If you no longer need the interlocutor to look in the certain direction you should raise the pen at the level of his eyes. He will raise his head to see the pen and meet your eyes. He will be able to learn all what you say. At the same the palm of your other hand should be disclosed and be within sight of the interlocutor.

Oblique look with raised eyebrows and smile shows interest in you; oblique look and lowered eyebrows - hostile and critical attitude towards you.

Like all other body signals, duration of look is determined by national traditions. In Europe, people look at each other for a long time, which might be offensive, for the Japanese. During conversation Japanese look at the neck of the interlocutor, but not at the face. Thus, during communication it is always necessary to take into account national traditions.

Posture and pose are also important in communication. Since ancient times, people use ritual poses, symbolizing superiority relationship - subordination. Fall on your knees - means to recognize your complete dependence on who is higher. A man standing with his head up and shoulders straightened shows his independence, self-confidence. Between these poles there is a wide range of poses that we unconsciously accept according to the situation and style of communication.

The leader of the group is usually the one who sits, leaning back in his chair, folded his hands behind his head and so on. To emphasize the significance of his words, he leans forward slightly. He has wide smooth gestures that show the usual confidence and a sense of superiority. On the contrary, a person who feels his insignificance can sit slouch, clenching fingers or hands folded on his chest, as if he wants to become invisible.

There are many other variations and nuances of poses that can tell a lot about the person. While communication feet position, direction of feet, sitting pose and even walking are important (the FBI and similar structures use this information in practice).

Shoes, lipstick, sunglasses, clothing, accessories also characterize their owner. Freud told that nobody is unable to hide secrets. If lips are silent, fingers speak.

Representatives of all peoples and cultures show their emotions by facial expressions. Even navigators-discoverers of distant lands drew attention at facial expressions. The Aborigines unaware of the facial expressions of white people, greeted newcomers with smiles or aggressive grimaces - depending on their attitude, which was understandable at first glance without words.

Of course there are some cultural differences in facial manifestations. For example, for Chinese raised eyebrows is a sign of anger, and for Americans - surprise. The most expressive facial structure is smile, which reveals a wide range of feelings and relationships - from irony to admiration.

American psychologist Paul Ekman considers smile as a complex phenomenon and distinguished 18 types of smiles, most of which are false. In business communication "soft" smile is the most common. It is used by the heads that criticize subordinate or refuse the suggested idea. With such a smile the corners of the mouth are compressed, and the lower lip is slightly raised.

Facial expressions that are meaningful are of great importance in the communication process. There is mimicry of laugh: rhythmical laugh is typical for attentive person; very loud which causes deformation of face, indicates that the person does not control himself; "closed smile" (the corners of the lips go up or down) is used by self-confident person. "Closed smile" sometimes shows jeering or contempt for others. A person who laughs with his eyes closed – likes enjoyment; short, jerky laugh is typical for a person that wants to achieve his goal without compromising; quiet laugh – a person who loves company and easily makes friends.

German psychologist Horst Ryukle claims that a very movable body language indicates a slight excitement from external stimuli. Strong facial game means the quick internal excitement, multifaceted and active perception of the world. Moving facial expressions characterizes impulsive behavior. Inactive body language indicates constancy of spiritual processes. It shows rarely changing, stable mood. This mimicry is associated with calmness, rationality, reliability and steadiness. But considering all the parameters we should not forget that every person throughout his life learns to control his face, consciously regulate its expression and can achieve in this field quite significant progress.

Gestures are the means of non-verbal communication. These are hands motions. Gestures accompany speech; help to identify man's attitude to the situation, the state, the type of temperament. Gestures can be voluntary and involuntary, typical and uncharacteristic for a person. There are different classifications of gestures.

1). Descriptive-figurative and expressive, emphasizing - these gestures accompany speech and out of the context they lose their meaning; conventional - greeting and farewell gestures, threats, attracting attention, invitations, prohibitions, insults, they can be used in communication instead of individual elements of language; modal - gestures of approval, pleasure, irony, mistrust, uncertainty, ignorance, suffering, thinking, concentration, confusion, depression, frustration, disgust, joy, delight, surprise; they express the evaluation, attitude to objects and people, signal about the change activity in the communication process; ritual gestures.

2) D. Nurenberg and H. Calero in the book "Learn to read people like a book" offer other types: gestures of openness: opened hands palms upwards - a gesture associated with sincerity, openness; shrug one’s shoulders, accompanied by a gesture of opened hands - a sign of openness of human nature; unbuttoning a jacket, removing it - the person is open-minded and friendly, and conversely, when a kind of guilt or suspicion is available, - the person hides his hands in his pocket or behind his back; gestures of protection - we respond to threats, conflicts (arms crossed or compressed in fists); gestures of assessment - gestures that are relevant to the thought and decision-making "hand near cheeks" - deep absorption in thought; gestures of critical assessment - chin rests on the palm, the index finger stretches along the cheek, the other fingers are lower the mouth (the position of "wait-see"); man sitting on the edge of his chair, elbows on thighs, arms hang down freely - a gesture of careful listening; scratching the chin - a gesture of "well, let us think"; gestures with glasses - wiping glasses, taking the handle in the mouth - this is a pause for thinking before you making strong resistance, requiring explanation or asking questions; walking around the office - the attempt to solve a complex problem or make a responsible decision; gestures of suspicion and secretiveness: the side look; legs (or the whole body) returned to the exit - a sign that the person wants to end the meeting, conversation; touching or light rubbing the nose (usually the index finger) - a sign of doubt (other types of gesture - rubbing behind or near the ear by the index finger, rubbing the eyes); gestures of dominance-subordination: dominance can be expressed as a welcoming handshake: when a person tightly grips your hand and return it so that his palm is over yours, he tries to show a physical advantage; hands joined behind his back, raised up chin - a typical authoritarian posture; in general, if you want to show your superiority, then all you have to do - is to physically go up over a man - sit higher when both of you sit or stand up; gestures of readiness: hands on the thighs; man sitting on the edge of a chair, the elbow of one hand and the palm of other hand are based on the knees; gestures of reinsurance: a person (child) gnaws nails, pen, pencil; interwoven fingers of hands, tingling of the skin; gestures of frustration: short breathing often accompanied with various indistinct sounds like groan (the one who did not notice the moment when his opponent begins to breathe short and continues to prove his point, might have serious consequences); gestures of nervousness: cough, throat cleaning – the one who often clears throat feels insecure and worried; playing with coins in a pocket indicates that the person is concerned because of money or lack of money; twitching own ears –is a sign that the interlocutor wants to interrupt the conversation, but he stops himself from interrupting; gestures of self-control: hands are behind the back and one hand strongly compresses another one; a man with crossed bones sitting in a chair, his hands grabbed the arms (typical for patients waiting for dentists). Such poses is a signal of the human desire to overcome strong feelings; gestures of boredom: tapping his foot on the floor or clicking pens cap; "head in the hand", i.e. the head lying on the palm; mechanical drawing on the paper; “empty“ look.

3) German psychologist Vera Birkenbil divides all the gestures into broad and small. It emphasizes that the stronger are feelings, the stronger gestures are manifested. Accordingly broad gestures are typical for the expansive nature inclined to the open manifestation of strong feelings. Since the broad movements attract attention, they are used by those who want to be catchy and to emphasize their importance - people who are power-hungry, arrogant. Small movements give the opposite impression. They are used by those who for some reason do not want to attract attention – these people are correct, modest, they do not wish to publicly reveal their emotions, feelings. But such behaviour can be dictated by a cunning calculation when a person deliberately seeks to make the appropriate impression. Small gestures can testify about the fall of spiritual forces - the energetic gestures do not have enough strength. A person with a weak handshake is likely to have a weak character. But if the person suffers from arthritis, it has to shake hands this way not to hurt himself. Artists, musicians, surgeons and people, whose profession is associated with sensitivity and flexibility of hands, mainly shake hands weakly.

Gestures can have different meanings, so it is necessary to be careful when interpreting them. In particular, the thumb raised up in the UK, Australia and New Zealand has several meanings. It is used by hitchhikers voting on the road; it means that everything is all right; and when the finger is raised sharply, the gesture gets abusive sexual meaning. In Greece, for example, this gesture has meaning " та пішов ти!". Imagine Australian hitchhiker that requires the Greek car to stop this way. The widespread importance of this gesture in our country - is "everything is all right", "very good", "class". The thumb is also used in combination with other gestures to determine the power and advantage as well as in situations when someone is trying to show interlocutor that he is completely under his authority.

The Sign «V» in Australia, the UK has an offensive meaning. Churchill used it as a symbol of victory (victory) during the Second World War, but his palm was returned from the interlocutor. In many European countries, this gesture means the figure "2" (for example, signal to the bartender - to bring two glasses of beer, etc.). These examples show that different national understanding of gestures can lead to quite unexpected results. Those who have to travel a lot around the world, communicate with foreigners, should follow the principle: "If you're in Rome, do as the Romans do." This will help you avoid many uncomfortable situations.

The most serious mistake you can make - is the interpretation of individual gestures independently of the others, and regardless of the situation. For example, scratching the back can have different meanings: dandruff, heat, uncertainty, forgetting, and lie. Therefore, to properly understand any gesture, it should be considered together with others. Every gesture - is a special "word", which can have several meanings. Gestures are composed in a kind of "sentence". Having found out their content, you can accurately understand the feelings of the interlocutor and his attitude to you.

Posture(A. Shtanhl described it in the book "Body Language") is one of the means of nonverbal communication. Good relaxed posture indicates a high human susceptibility to the openness, the capacity for immediate use of internal forces and freedom against any restrictive coercion. Immovability, tension of bodies indicate the self-defence, avoiding contact isolation, often sensitivity and awkward attempts to be correct. Poor, flabby postures, stooping back indicate humility, reconciliation subservience. conventional poses (one or two hands in pockets, hands laid behind his back or crossed on his chest, etc.) indicate the lack of independence.

Shoulder girdle and upper body is very informative. The high raise of the shoulders and slightly stooped back indicate helplessness, nervousness, chronic fear, uncertainty. Shoulders going ahead indicate a sense of depression and weakness or inferiority complex. Free sinking shoulders indicate the self-confidence, inner freedom and control of situation. Shoulders turned back indicate the determination to act, a sense of strength, activity, overestimation of personal capabilities. Вип’ячена chest is typical for active people with a developed sense of personal significance, the need for social contact; sunken chest frequently indicates indifference, isolation, passivity, obedience and depression.

Walking is an element of kinesics associated with the body posture. The nature of walking indicates the physical condition, a person's age, his emotional state. The elements of walking are a rhythm, speed, step length, the pressure on the surface. These parameters create images of confident, guilty, cautious walking.

Takesics - nonverbal behaviour associated with a system of tactile perception. These are different touches. The frequency of touches depends on the features of culture, gender, age, status, character of interaction. Touches are divided into the types: professional – are used solely for professional or functional purposes and have impersonal nature: when the professional touches another person, the latter is perceived by him as an object; the ritual (shaking hands, diplomatic kisses); sociable; lovers.

Paralanguage - is tone, voice volume, rate of speech, pauses, exclamation. They can analyze the features of thinking, truth or falsity of uttering.

Questions, problems

1. Explain the differences between verbal and nonverbal communication. Analyze the impact of non-verbal means on the effectiveness of business communication.

2. What is the connection between the choice of spatial area and the use of eye contact in business communication?

3. Define the requirements for the use of gestures in business communication.

4. Clarify the features of spatial placement of partners at the table during business meetings, negotiations.

1 23