ПОЗНАВАТЕЛЬНОЕ

Оси и плоскости тела человека - Тело человека состоит из определенных топографических частей и участков, в которых расположены органы, мышцы, сосуды, нервы и т.д.

Отёска стен и прирубка косяков - Когда на доме не достаёт окон и дверей, красивое высокое крыльцо ещё только в воображении, приходится подниматься с улицы в дом по трапу.

Дифференциальные уравнения второго порядка (модель рынка с прогнозируемыми ценами) - В простых моделях рынка спрос и предложение обычно полагают зависящими только от текущей цены на товар.

Classification of Lexical Stylistic Devices

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There are 3 groups.

1. The interaction of different types of lexical meaning.

a) dictionary and contextual (metaphor, metonymy, irony);

b) primary and derivative (zeugma and pun);

c) logical and emotive (epithet, oxymoron);

d) logical and nominative (antonomasia);

2. Intensification of a feature (simile, hyperbole, periphrasis).

3. Peculiar use of set expressions (cliches, proverbs, epigram, quotations).

Syntactical Stylistic Devices Classification of Syntactical Stylistic Devices

Groups.

I. Patterns of syntactical

Arrangement: Inversion. Detachment. Parallelism. Chiasmus. Repetition. Enumeration. Suspense. Climax. Antithesis.

II. Peculiar linkage: Asyndeton. Polysyndeton. Gap - sentence - link.

III. Colloquial constructions : Ellipsis. Aposiopesis. Question - in - the narrative. Represented speech.

IV.Stylistic use of structural meaning: Rhetorical questions. Litotes.

TROPES

METAPHOR

Metaphor - transference of names based on the associated likeness between two objects, as in the "pancake", or "ball", or "volcano" for the "sun"; "silver dust", "sequins" for "stars"; "vault", "blanket", "veil" for the "sky". The connection between the chosen feature, representing the object, and the word is especially vivid in cases of transparent "inner form" when the name of the object can be easily traced to the name of one of its characteristics. The expressiveness of the metaphor is promoted by the implicit simultaneous presence of images of both objects - the one which is actually named and the one which supplies its own "legal" name. So that formally we deal with the name transference based on the similarity of one feature common to two different entities, while in fact each one enters a phrase in the complexity of its other characteristics. When the speaker (writer) in his desire to present an elaborated image does not limit its creation to a single metaphor but offers a group of them, each supplying another feature of the described phenomenon, this cluster creates a sustained (prolonged) metaphor.

METONYMY

Is based on a different type of relation between the dictionary and contextual meanings, a relation based not on affinity, but on some kind of association connecting the two concepts which these meanings represent on a proximity

The proximity may be revealed:

1) between the symbol and the thing it denotes;

2) in the relations between the instrument and the action performed with this instrument;

e.g. His pen is rather sharp.

3) in the relation between the container and the thing it contains; e.g. He drank one more cup.

4) the concrete is put for the abstract;

e. g. It was a representative gathering (science, politics).

5) a part is put for the whole;

e.g. the crown - king, a hand - worker.

Metonymy represents the events of reality in its subjective attitude. Metonymy in many cases is trite.

e.g.:" to earn one's bread", "to keep one's mouth shut".

VERBAL IRONY

Is a stylistic device also based on the simultaneous realization of two logical meanings - dictionary and contextual, but the two meanings are in opposition to each other. The literal meaning is the opposite of the intended meaning. One thing is said and the other opposite is implied.

Verbal irony is a statement in which the meaning that a speaker employs is sharply different from the meaning that is ostensibly expressed. The ironic statement usually involves the explicit expression of one attitude or evaluation, but with indications in the overall speech-situation that the speaker intends a very different, and often opposite, attitude or evaluation.

HYPERBOLE

A stylistic device in which emphasis is achieved through deliberate exaggeration, - like epithet, relies on the foregrounding of the emotive meaning. The feelings and emotions of the speaker are so raffled that he resorts in his speech to intensifying the quantitative or the qualitative aspect of the mentioned object.

Hyperbole is aimed at exaggerating quantity or quality. When it is directed the opposite way, when the size, shape, dimensions, characteristic features of the object are hot overrated, but intentionally underrated, we deal with understatement. The mechanism of its creation and functioning is identical with that of hyperbole, and it does not signify the actual state' of affairs in reality, but presents the latter through the emotionally coloured perception and rendering of the speaker. Trite hyperboles and understatements, reflecting their use in everyday speech, in creative writing are observed mainly in dialogue, while the author's speech provides us with examples of original SDs, often rather extended or demanding a considerable fragment of the text to be fully understood.

MEIOSIS

In rhetoric, meiosis is a euphemistic figure of speech that intentionally understates something or implies that it is lesser in significance or size than it really is. Meiosis is the opposite of auxesis, and also sometimes used as a synonym for litotes

Features of Meiosis

1. It is intentional understatement.
2. It is used to belittle a person or an event.
3. It is opposite to hyperbole or exaggeration.
4. It often makes use of litotes as synonym to give ironic effect.

Meiosis, in fact, illustrates tone and mannerism such as quiet and brooding where protagonists are often understated in tone and action. Meiosis is very common everywhere in our daily lives, old and modern literature and media. We can distinguish understatement in modesty, in humor, in composed and calm characters, in personalities where it gives rhetorical effects to the speech delivered by them. Since it is a method used to give information that diminishes the response of an overemotional occurrence, the basic function of meiosis is to reduce the significance of someone or something in order to heighten something else simultaneously.

LITOTES

Litotes is a two-component structure in which two negations are joined to give a positive evaluation. Thus "not unkindly" actually means "kindly", though the positive effect is weakened and some lack of the speaker's confidence in his statement is implied. The first component of a litotes is always the negative particle "not", while the second, always negative in semantics, varies in form from a negatively affixed word (as above) to a negative phrase.

Litotes is especially expressive when the semantic centre of the whole • structure is stylistically or/and emotionally coloured, as in the case of the following occasional creations: "Her face was not unhandsome" (A.H.) or "Her face was not unpretty". (K.K.)

The function of litotes has much in common with that of understatement - both weaken the effect of the utterance. The uniqueness of litotes lies in its specific "double negative" structure and in its weakening only the positive evaluation. The Russian term "литота" corresponds only to the English "understatement" as it has no structural or semantic limitations.

EPITHET

Epithet expresses characteristics of an object, both existing and imaginary. Its basic feature is its emotiveness and subjectivity: the characteristic attached to the object to qualify it is always chosen by the speaker himself. Our speech ontologically being always emotionally coloured, it is possible to say that in epithet it is the emotive meaning of the word that is foregrounded to suppress the denotational meaning of the latter.

Semantically, there should be differentiated two main groups, the biggest of them being affective, or emotive proper (serve to convey the emotional.evaluation of the object by the speaker)and figurative, or transferred (is formed of metaphors, metonymies and similes (which will be discussed later) expressed by adjectives).

According to the structure we can distinguish such groups: single ep.(expressed by one word); pairs of ep. (represented by two epithets joined by a conjunction or asyndetically); chains/strings of ep. (present a group of homogeneous attributes varying in number from three up to sometimes twenty and even more); two-steps ep. (are so called because the process of qualifying seemingly passes two stages: the qualification of the object and the qualification of the qualification itself; have a fixed structure of Adv + Adj model); phrase-ep. (always produce an original impression Compound form); inverted ep. (are based on the contradiction between the logical and the syntactical: logically defining becomes syntactically defined and vice versa).

ATONOMASIA

Is a trope in which a proper name is used instead of a common noun or vice versa, i.e. a stylistic device, in which the nominal meaning (naming one single individual object) of a proper noun is suppressed by its logical meaning (classifying objects into classes) or the logical meaning acquires The new - nominal - component. There are two Types of metaphorical antonomasia possible*.

First, antonomasia can be in a way a variety of allusion. IT is The use of The name of a historical, or biblical personage applied to a person whose characteristic features resemble Those of a well-known original. Thus, a traitor's name may be referred To as Brutus, a ladies' man deserves the name of Don Juan.

Second, at The basis of antonomasia There can be a metaphor, i.e. The use of a common noun as a proper name. For instance, Becky Sharp, Lady Snake, Miss Ape, etc. Antonomasia of this kind is created mainly by nouns, more seldom by attributive combinations (as in "Dr. Fresh Air") or phrases (as in "Mr. What's-his-name")

PERIPHRASIS

Is a very peculiar stylistic device which basically consists of using a roundabout form of expression instead of a simpler one, i.e. of using a more or less complicated syntactical structure instead of a word. Depending on the mechanism of this substitution, periphrases are classified into figurative (metonymic and metaphoric) (is made, in fact, of phrase-metonymies and phrase-metaphors) and logical (are phrases synonymic with the words which were substituted by periphrases; because the direct nomination of the not too elegant feature of appearance was substituted by a roundabout description this periphrasis may be also considered euphemistic, as it offers a more polite qualification instead of a coarser one). The main function of periphrases is to convey a purely individual perception of the described object. To achieve it the generally accepted nomination of the object is replaced by the description of one of its features or qualities, which seems to the author most important for the characteristic of the object, and which thus becomes foregrounded.

SIMILE

Is an imaginative comparison of two unlike objects belonging to two different classes. The one which is compared is called the tenor, the one with which it is compared, is called the vehicle. The tenor and the vehicle form the two semantic poles of the simile, which are connected by one of the following link words "like", "as", "as though", "as like", "such as", "as...as", etc. In a simile two objects are compared on the grounds of similarity of some quality. This feature which is called foundation of a simile. A simile, often repeated, becomes trite and adds to the stock of language phraseology. Most of trite similes have the foundation mentioned and conjunctions "as", "as...as" used as connectives. Cf.: "as brisk as a bee", "as strong as a horse", "as live as a bird" and many many more. Similes in which the link between the tenor and the vehicle is expressed by notional verbs such as "to resemble", "to seem", "to recollect", "to remember", "to look like", "to appear", etc. are called disguised, because the realization of the comparison is somewhat suspended, as the likeness between the objects seems less evident. Cf.

OXYMORON

Is a stylistic device the syntactic and semantic structures of which come to clashes. Each of Ox. is a combination of two semantically contradictory notions, that help to emphasize contradictory qualities simultaneously existing in the described phenomenon as a dialectical unity. As a rule, one of the two members of oxymoron illuminates the feature which is universally observed and acknowledged while the other one offers a purely subjective, individual perception of the object. Oxymorons rarely become trite, for their components, linked forcibly, repulse each other and oppose repeated use. There are few colloquial oxymorons, all of them showing a high degree of the speaker's emotional involvement in the situation, as in "damn nice", "awfully pretty".

PUN AND ZEUGMA

There are special SDs which make a word materialize distinct dictionary meanings. They are zeugma and the pun. Zeugmais the use of a word in the same grammatical but different semantic relations to two adjacent words in the context, the semantic relations being on the one hand literal, and on the other, transferred. e. g. Dora, plunging at once into privileged intimacy and into the middle of the room. In very many cases polysemantic verbs that have a practically unlimited lexical valency and can be combined with nouns of most varying semantic groups, are deliberately used with two or more homogeneous members, which are not connected semantically, as in such examples from Ch. Dickens: "He took his hat and his leave", or "She went home, in a flood of tears and a sedan chair". These are cases of classical zeugma, highly characteristic of English prose.

Zeugma is a strong and effective device to maintain the purity of the primary meaning when two meanings clash. The punis another S.D. based on the interaction of two well-known meanings of a word or a phrase. Contextual conditions leading to the simultaneous realization of two meanings and to the formation of pun may vary: it can be misinterpretation of one speaker's utterance by the other, which results in his remark dealing with a different meaning of the misinterpreted word or its homonym. It is difficult to draw a hard and fast distinction between zeugma and pun. The only reliable distinguishing feature is a structural one: zeugma is the realization of two meanings with the help of a verb which is made to refer to different subjects or objects (direct and indirect). The pun is more independent. Like any S.D. it must depend on a context. But the context may be of a more expanded character, sometimes even as large as a whole work of emotive prose.

Pun seems to be more varied and resembles zeugma in its humourous effect only.

III. Expressive Syntax

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