ПОЗНАВАТЕЛЬНОЕ

Оси и плоскости тела человека - Тело человека состоит из определенных топографических частей и участков, в которых расположены органы, мышцы, сосуды, нервы и т.д.

Отёска стен и прирубка косяков - Когда на доме не достаёт окон и дверей, красивое высокое крыльцо ещё только в воображении, приходится подниматься с улицы в дом по трапу.

Дифференциальные уравнения второго порядка (модель рынка с прогнозируемыми ценами) - В простых моделях рынка спрос и предложение обычно полагают зависящими только от текущей цены на товар.

I. THE PROPER NAMES AND THE METHODS OF ITS TRANSLATION

Proper names - is an integral part of any culture that reflects many aspects of the life of a people.

Merriam Webster's Dictionary defines the proper noun as "a noun that designates a particular being or thing, does not take a limiting modifier, and is usually capitalized in English—called also proper name."

The Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary says that a proper noun (or proper name) is "a word that is the name of a person, a place, an institution, etc. and is written with a capital letter" (p.1016).

So what is the "proper name": The proper name "belongs to himself," because in the ancient language Own (Me) - a property (here, by the way, the word "freedom"). The proper name - a noun denoting a word or phrase that is designed to name specific, it is a particular object or phenomenon that distinguishes the object or effect of a number of similar objects or phenomena. The proper name is opposed to a household name. In all European languages, and in most languages of the world with the alphabet and the difference between uppercase and lowercase letters, proper names are written with a capital letter. According Yu.A. Karpenko, the name of one object - have a proper name. [Karpenko, 2011; 45], A.A. Reformatsky claims that operate their own names, especially nominative function - called certain items. [Reformed in 2003, 49]. English logician John Stuart Mill came to the conclusion that the proper names have no meaning - they are unique labels or tags (like the cross) to help recognize objects and to distinguish them from each other. All names have their own values of the object, that is part of their content is like a synthesis of the existence of a subject (or essence, we introduce ourselves as the subject). By Vinogradov the main function of proper names serves as nominative function - to call to the same objects to distinguish from each other, as opposed to common names which main function is - to name to inform significance, .

Proper nouns are divided into:

· Oikonyms - the names of populated areas (from the ancient Greek οἶκος -. Housing, dwelling).

· Hydronyms - names of rivers (from the ancient Greek ὕδωρ -. Water).

· Oronyms - the names of the mountains (from the ancient Greek ὄρος -. Mountain).

· Urbanonimy - the names of intracityobject (from the Latin urbanus -. City).

· Godonimy - street names (from the ancient Greek ὁδός -. The way, road, street, track).

· Agoronimy - the names of areas (from ancient Greek ἀγορά -. Area).

· Dromonimy - the names of Communications (from the ancient Greek δρόμος -. Running, movement, path).

· Microtoponyms - the names of the small unpopulated objects (from the ancient Greek μικρός -. Small).

· Horonimy - the names of large areas, countries, vast areas.

"In addition, the naming of people (anthroponomy) and geographical names (toponyms) are not the primary lexical units by origin, as they are formed on the base of nominal word. Describing the originality of the information which is inherent to proper names. The proper name - is always realia. In a speech it is called actually existing or invented object of thought, person or place, the only one of its kind and unique. In any such name is usually contained Information about the local and national identity of the object it designates.

Proper names are used in all areas of human endeavor, and therefore, they can be found in a variety of functional styles. At first glance it may seem that the translation of proper names is not much difficulty. But in fact it is a very difficult task, and the result is often controversial and may even lead to lawsuits Translation of proper names requires special attention, as mistakes in the translation of proper names could lead to inaccuracies and misinformation. For example, an error in the proper names translation in the official document can even lead to legal action. Proper names carry some information on the subject is, its properties. This information can be rich or poor, and she is known to varying degrees in different areas of communication. If this information gets spread throughout the linguistic community, then it means that the information on this subject are part of the linguistic meaning of a proper name.

"The specifics of the subject under study is that in their linguistic basis, it also includes ethnographic, historical, geographical, sociological, a literary components" [Superanskaya 1973: 7]. Especially interest for this works literal translation, because it relates not only to culture in general, but especially to the literature. Artistic literature different from any other in that it conveys the historical, linguistic, ethnographic and many other features of the culture of the author belongs to an artistic work, as well as a reflection of the personality of the author and his ideas.

The question of the meaning of a proper name is not only of theoretical interest. It becomes very relevant in intercultural and interlingual contacts. It would seem that proper names easily cross cross-language barriers as they seek to maintain its outer form and when used outside the scope of "native" language. However, sometimes quite significant elements of their content are much more difficult to overcome such barriers. Without the preservation of their values proper names cannot function in a different language environment. Hence - the potential problems of misunderstanding and inaccurate perception of texts containing the names. At first glance it may seem that the translation of proper names is not much difficulty. Even the translation is called very conditional: in fact, as a rule, proper names transcribed or transliterated. In modern linguistics proper names are often defined as calling lexical units as opposed to common nouns words that are considered denoting units. In other words, proper names, "comes to the fore nominative function - call to the same objects to distinguish from each other, as opposed to a household name, whose main function - to call to report the value, connote."

The peculiarity of names, in contrast to many foreign words borrowed, is that the transmission of them to another language they generally retain their original sound image. The reason for this lies in the specificity of the semantic structure of his own name. When transmitting proper names of paramount importance takes phonetic envelope. This is because they represent individual objects directly, bypassing the stage of presentation or the general concept.

Some complications in every possible theory of the proper name makes the fact that, in addition to the typical proper names ( Василий, Маруся, Москва, Америка etc.), there some that in some way have the motivation or significance, for example, The Russian Federation, Institute of Mining, as well as the titles of books, films («Вий», «Три тополя на Плющихе» etc.). Proper names are reference points in the cross-language communication and thus to learn a foreign language and a translation of it. This has created the illusion that the names do not require special attention when learning a foreign language and a translation of it. This approach is based on a falsehood. Proper names do help overcome language barriers, but in its original language environment, they have a complex semantic structure, unique features, and form etymology, numerous connections with other units and categories of language. When transmitting on behalf of another language most of these properties are lost. If you do not know or ignore these features, then transfer the name of the other linguistic soil can not only facilitate, but also complicate the identification of the bearer of the name.

In a fact the translation of proper names - a very important aspect of the work of an interpreter, as can be judged by an active discussion of the problem at professional forums, where expressed sometimes completely opposite opinions. Proper names are very important for mutual understanding and communication between people. There are many notions of "proper name," but on the basis of the above, I am inclined to the assertion of John. Art. Mill, that the proper name is the name have no value - they are unique labels or tags (like the cross) to help recognize objects and to distinguish them from each other. All names have their own values of the object, that is part of their content is like a synthesis of the existence of a certain object. Proper names carry some information on the subject is, its properties. At first glance, it may seem that proper names do not carry any difficulties. They are transcribed or transliterated. But without saving your values proper names cannot function in a different language environment. Therefore, the translation of proper names the interpreter face quite complex problem: it is necessary to accurately reflect the full cultural and national specificity of proper names maximally preserves their sound shell.

The main feature of proper names is that when sending them to the translated language, they do not lose their sound shape. Proper names help to overcome language barriers, but in its original language environment, they have a complex semantic structure, unique features, and form etymology, numerous connections with other units and categories of language. There are several methods of translation of proper names:

Translation Methods of proper names:

· Transliteration

· Transcription

· Transcription elements transliteration

· Calque

· Transposition

· Modulation

· The principle of euphony

Below is a look at these methods in more detail.

The methods of translation of proper names by transliteration

Transliteration plays an important role in the translation of proper names. Admission transliteration known since ancient times, when there is a need to transmit words and proper nouns into another language.

Transliteration - reproduction a word written using a single alphabetic system, by means of another alphabetic system.

There are several types of replacement: - strict, replacing each sign of the source text by a single sign writing (а→a, б→b, в→v…);

- impaired, replacement of some signs of the original text of a combination of two or more characters other written (ж→zh, ч→ch, я→ya…);

- It extended, to present some combinations of characters of the source text in a special way (ый→y).

Transliteration has advantages and disadvantages. The advantages are clear - a written version of the name is not deformed, it has a universal carrier no matter what language identification. (This is no small consideration - for example, the name Ельцин is transmitted in English like Yeltsin). Sometimes it is difficult to restore the original form of a foreign name or the names given to them in Russian transcription, ie, with a focus on sound rather than spelling (eg, Jung - Young and Lee Jung - Leigh, Lee or Lie?). Transcribe proper names along with the rest

the realities are the few elements of the transfer, which retain certain national identity in their verbal sound shape. The Spanish word, for example, even when written in Cyrillic, is a Spanish word, and does not lose its national color. Spanish names Nicolás, Andrés and Ana (we are not talking about the etymology of these names, and their functioning in system of modern Spanish), just like Николая, Андрея и Анну, do not become russified under the pen of the translator and sent as Nicholas, Andrew and Ana.

So in the press have recently started occur the following transcription of English words and phrases that do not have equivalents in the Russian lexicon: tribalism – трайбализм, brain drain – брейн-дрейн, public school – паблик скул, drive-in – драйв-ин, teach-in – тич-ин, drugstore – драгстор, know-how – ноу-хау, impeachment – импичмент and others. In the English social and political literature can be found, such transliteration of Russian realities as agitprop, sovkhoz, technicum etc.

This technique is demanded in cases where different languages are graphics systems, which put the unit in a certain correspondence with each other. The written form of the name with this method of translation minimally distorted, and what is its main advantage. However, the sound may be distorted shell, because very often when transliteration borrowing language imposes pronunciation corresponding to its own rules of reading. Therefore it is better, if the transfer is submitted as close as possible to its original sound.

Thus, transliteration - formal letter by letter recreate the original lexical unit with the help of the alphabet target language, a literal imitation of the original form of the word. There letter substitutions. Only a few varieties of replacement: strict, weakened and expanded. It is important to note that the transliteration has both advantages and disadvantages. The advantage is that the written version of the name is not distorted, it has a universal carrier, regardless of language identification. The disadvantage is that the sound may be distorted shell of a proper name, because the borrowing language imposes the rules of reading, typical for that language. If the names of, for example, the Cuban La settlements Cruz, La Gloria, Rey, Cape Pájaros or Virtudes Havana street would translated by the rule of translation, to transcribe in the russian text such villages would called as Cross ,Glory, King,( Крест, Слава, Король) Cape would named as a Birds(Птицы) , and the street would translate as the street of virtues(Добродетелей), disappeared even an allusion to the fact that these toponyms refer to its range of Spanish speech, and, most importantly, that would break the a direct connection between the object and its name. Therefore, we must take into account the rules of reading the language from which the translation is being transmitted and the name of your own as closely as possible to the original source.

The methods of translation of proper names by transcription

Transmission of foreign word sounds (usually proper name, geographic name, scientific term) using the letters of the Russian alphabet. When transcription typically seek to maximize the phonetic proximity to the name of the retained sound image when transferred to a different language environment.

In general, most of names currently transferred via this transfer method.

Transcription - graphic recording of sound words. Says V.S. Slepovich, proper names transmitted transliteration historically or traditionally. For example: Dr Watson — Доктор Уотсон, Munchhausen — Мюнхаузен. According to Barkhudarova, transcription passed graphical form of the word. Transcription - reproduced in writing words and texts with regard to their pronunciation of certain means of graphical system. In general, most of names currently transmitted by means of graphics.

Although the proper name is intended to identify the object in any situation and in any language community, it is in most cases have national linguistic identity. Each language community there are persons other nationality. When transferring to another language, the question arises: to what extent these names preserved identity of the language from which it came.

Unfortunately, in the Russian language is already widespread wrong in terms of the rules of transcription of oriental languages versions of the names of Japanese and Korean corporations: Toshiba - Тошиба (Тосиба), Hitachi Хитачи (Хитати), Samsung Самсунг (правильно Самсон),and others. Unfortunately, these linguistically incorrect names have already been taken, and most of these companies in the domestic market, so in some cases it is necessary to consider them already well-established 'traditional' correspondences and use in the future.

Transcriptions are subject to all sorts of proper names (names of persons, geographical objects, celestial bodies, institutions, organizations, sea and river vessels, companies, hotels, restaurants, newspapers, magazines, stage productions, etc.). Usually we do not even imagine how great is the sum of proper names in any language; it is hundreds of times greater than the vocabulary of any, even the most complete dictionaries. This is natural, since the ratio of proper names and vocabulary appellative roughly corresponds to the ratio known single subjects and general concepts.

Disadvantages of transcription.

The lack of a unified system of transcription in many cases, difficult to understand texts and identifying persons and objects. There is no doubt that not all transcription can be formalized; in particular when the transcription acts as an ingredient in a vast system of literary translation, transcription rules can not be completely standardized and much remains at stake artistic flair translator and editor. At the same time, in order to provide successful versions transcription reasonably deviate from formal rules, it is useful and even necessary to master this standard as much as possible. Under transcription, transmission of sounds or understand language tracings system of signs other than those adopted in the written language units. «The linguistic research for scientific purposes are used the phonetic transcription using the conventional system of signs. »In the practice of transcription used historically established spelling system of the language, which transferred foreign names. Practical transcription is a means of inserting the words of one language into another text, with the approximate shape of preserving the sound of those words. The inevitable approximateness practical transcription - a consequence of a mismatch in the number of phonemes of different languages. Practical transcription should be distinguished, on the one hand, from the translation and, on the other hand, on the transliteration. A common feature of transcription, translation and transliteration is that they serve as a means of transmission of words from any language in the language of borrowing; the difference lies in the means used for this transfer. Transcription of proper names with the English language often presents considerable difficulties due to a number of circumstances. Firstly, the reason for the difficulties of transcription is that the historical development of English spelling has led to its significant discrepancy with the pronunciation, to an abundance of unpronounceable or spoken words in a variety of different letters and letter combinations. For example: name known to all the physics of Isaac Newton (Исаак Ньютон) can be translated as Айзек Ньютон , Айзек Невтон or Исаак Невтон. A prime example of such distortion, a surname Huxley. This name can be translated as Гексли. Huxley - physicist scientist of the 19th century, or Haksli- English writer of the 20th century In addition, the distinctive feature of English spelling, and above all, the spelling of proper names is frequent assimilation of foreign-language combinations of letters with a full or partial characteristics of their pronunciation. The second difficulty is essential for transcription of English names and titles, it is the lack of Russian language in a number of phonemes available in English. Thirdly, they may have different names in different countries pronunciation of English. It is known, for example, that the English letter "a" in the same position where the South English pronunciation, it corresponds to the pronunciation [a:], for example, last, in a number of dialects in the north of England, in Australia or the southern United States and is pronounced [o:]. It is obvious that in many cases can not be ignored especially the pronunciation of geographical names of local residents, especially the pronunciation of personal names of the carriers of these names in many English-speaking countries, which have spread succession related species of American (US and Canada), Australia, etc. pronunciation. For example, Wrath place name is usually pronounced like the English [ro], but in Scotland it is pronounced as [ra:], and sometimes it is imitated by the British pronunciation of [ra:] or [r]. Based on the above, it can be noted that the transcription - is the transmission of speech sounds of a foreign language (usually proper name, geographic name, scientific term) using the letters of the transfer language. Transcriptions are subject to all sorts of proper names (names of persons, geographical objects, celestial bodies, institutions, organizations, sea and river vessels, companies, hotels, restaurants, newspapers, magazines, stage productions, etc.). It is important that the name has its own national and linguistic identity.

Transcription has both advantages and disadvantages. The advantages are that the transcription of virtually allows you to send the sound of a foreign name or word, since the phonetic transcription of data taken into account the original language.

The disadvantages are the lack of a single transcription system, which in many cases difficult to understand text and the identification of persons and objects. The reason for the difficulties of transcription is that the historical development of English spelling has led to its significant discrepancy with the pronunciation, to an abundance of unpronounceable or spoken words in a variety of different letters and letter combinations. A significant challenge for the English transcription of names is a lack of Russian language in a number of phonemes available in English.