ПОЗНАВАТЕЛЬНОЕ

Оси и плоскости тела человека - Тело человека состоит из определенных топографических частей и участков, в которых расположены органы, мышцы, сосуды, нервы и т.д.

Отёска стен и прирубка косяков - Когда на доме не достаёт окон и дверей, красивое высокое крыльцо ещё только в воображении, приходится подниматься с улицы в дом по трапу.

Дифференциальные уравнения второго порядка (модель рынка с прогнозируемыми ценами) - В простых моделях рынка спрос и предложение обычно полагают зависящими только от текущей цены на товар.

Transfer values as one of the types of semantic change

The development of new values (or change the setting) - traditionally called transference (transference). But the use of the term "transfer of value» (transference of meaning) is a serious mistake. Importantly, in any of the cases are transported semantic change words from one assistant to another (e. g. Fromahorse-drawn vehicle on to arailway car), but not significant. The result of such a transfer is the emergence of new value.

There are two kinds of transport, based on which two kinds of logical associations are: similarity (similarity) and adjacency (contiguity).

Metonymy - is a type of semantic change, with "which transferred the name of an object or phenomenon to another object or phenomenon is based on the real (and sometimes imaginary) ties between the" objects or phenomena Communication (contiguity) in time or space. causal relationships, etc. can cause a regular, stable association that allows you to set some models of metonymic association is based on the subtle psychological relationships between different objects and phenomena, sometimes traceable and identifiable with great difficulty There are different types of metonymy:

a) The material from which the object is made, can become the object name, for example: «a glass», «boards», «iron» etc.

b) name of the place can be used for the names of people or objects placed there, for example: «the House» - members of Parliament, «Fleet Street» - bourgeois press, «the White House» - the Administration of the USA etc.

c) The names of musical instruments can be used for names of musicians, such as: «the violin», «the saxophone»;

d) The name of a person can become a household name, for example: «boycott» - originally called the Irish family, which is so not like the neighbors that refused to communicate with her, «sandwich» named after Lord Sandwich, who was a player and does not want to interrupt your game for meals. He asked the servants to bring him meat between two slices of bread during the game, so as not to dirty your fingers.

e) The names of inventors are very often the terms to describe phenomena that are invented, for example: «watt», «om», «rentgen» etc.

f) Some geographical names can also become a household name thanks to metonymy, for example: «China» - dishes made of porcelain (formed from the name of the country, which was believed to have been the invention of porcelain spot); «Tweed» - a coarse wool cloth (got its name from the River Tweed and the Cheviot (another type of wool) of Cheviot hills in England);

g) The name of the painter is often used for the title of his painting, for example: «a Matisse» - a painting by Matisse.

Another extremely productive type of semantic change, leading to the formation of secondary, derivative values, is a metaphor. Metaphor is a transfer of the name of an object or phenomenon to another object or phenomenon on the basis of their similarity or hidden comparison, the likeness of one object to another can be carried out as a result of a wide variety of common characteristics:

1. The similarity of shape. For example: a noun «drop» (in most cases in the plural) is in addition to the principal value of «a small particle of water or other liquid» further: «ear-rings shaped as drop sofwater» (diamond drops) and "candy of the same shape" (mint drops.)

2. The similarity of position. For example: foot (of a page, of a mountain), head (of a procession);

3. Color similarity. For example: orange, hazel, chestnut, etc.

4. The similarity of function or behavior. For example: «a whip» (anofficialintheBritishParliamentwhosedutyistoseethatmemberswerepresentatthevoting); «A fox» (a cunning person); In that case, if the object's name or event is transferred to another object or phenomenon due to their functional community, isolated transfer function as a kind of metaphor.

In some cases, we have a complete resemblance. Thus, for example a table leg (the leg of a table) resembles a human foot, not only in its shape, but in the position and function.

In English, there are a lot of metaphors, which are based on similarity to parts of the human body. For example: an eye of a needle, the neck of a bottle, arms and mouth of a river, head of an army, teeth of a comb.

A special kind of metaphor - when proper names become common nouns. For example: «philistine» - a mercenary person, vandals - destructive people, «a Don Juan» - a lover of many women.

The above model of metaphorical translations not exhaustive, however, all the wealth of metaphorical shifts underlying the derivative values of ambiguous words. Metaphor, according to V. N. Telia, is omnipresent. It serves as a prism, is able to provide re-examination of the knowable through already learned, recorded as the value of linguistic unit. Based on the similarity of things, metaphor is closely related to human cognitive activity, since it involves a comparison of at least two objects and the establishment of some features common to them operating in the semantic change as a basis for the transfer of the name.

However, it should be noted that the linguistic metonymic and metaphoric transfers as a means of creating secondary values differ from the poetic metaphor and metonymy as the special techniques of figurative speech used in stylistic purposes. Their main difference is that, arising initially in an utterance, metaphoric and metonymic of the first type as a result of frequent use are facts of language and must be acquired by people who study the appropriate language, while the methods of figurative language - metaphorical and metonymic - are facts speech, creating a special expressiveness, imagery and acting on the artistic sensibility of the reader or listener.