ПОЗНАВАТЕЛЬНОЕ

Оси и плоскости тела человека - Тело человека состоит из определенных топографических частей и участков, в которых расположены органы, мышцы, сосуды, нервы и т.д.

Отёска стен и прирубка косяков - Когда на доме не достаёт окон и дверей, красивое высокое крыльцо ещё только в воображении, приходится подниматься с улицы в дом по трапу.

Дифференциальные уравнения второго порядка (модель рынка с прогнозируемыми ценами) - В простых моделях рынка спрос и предложение обычно полагают зависящими только от текущей цены на товар.

Extension and generalization of lexical meaning

Types of semantic change

Similarly, as the cause of semantic change can be very different, own semantic changes in nature may also differ, for a variety of patterns may lie in their basis.

There are several classifications of semantic change, but the most complete was suggested by Paul G. in the XIX century. According to the logic of Paul G., values change can take place in several directions:

1. expansion of value (extension, widening or generalization);

2. narrowing value (narrowing, restriction or specialization);

3. shift(shift and transfer) values (transference of meaning).

When you extend the value of species concept inherent denotatum, develops generic, in other words, there is a generalization. The restriction value, in contrast, suggests that the initial value serves as a generic and modified - as one of its component species. In modern linguistic literature, the term "specialization" is more often used, introduced by M. Brealem because it more accurately conveys what is happening with the initial volume of the concept. Changes of the third type (displacement (offset transfer) value), unlike the first two types are not gradually. As a rule, such a transfer is carried out consciously speaking.

Securing the same result occurs in the language provided the basis for the transfer is recognized by the majority language, i.e. formation of stable collective association. At the core of the secondary use of names, usually described as the transfer of values, although, of course, correct to speak of the transfer of names and the development of their secondary values are the laws of associative links. They are determined by the types of semantic changes of expression in the course of its historical development, types of relationships between the values in the diachronic and as an end result the types of the values themselves in the semantic structure of the ambiguous word.

Associative relations, as a reflection of our concepts and ideas concerning the interaction of the facts and phenomena of the objective world are complex and diverse. The most stable of them included in the social experience of a language community and predetermining the appearance of secondary use of words, based on established our consciousness real or fictitious connection and common objects in the world around us. Depending on what is the basis of associative relationships - communication, contiguity of the phenomena or some of their common attributes and the consequent resemblance - distinguish metonymic and metaphorical transfer values and their variations - synecdoche and functional transfer.

Semantic changes may also occur in several minor ways: upgrading and improving value(elevationoramelioration); degradation or disparage values (degradationordeterioration, pejoration), hyperbole (hyperbole); litotes (litotes or understatement); irony (irony).

The classification of semantic changes in the types based on a comparison of the original and new values of a word.

Extension and generalization of lexical meaning

In most cases, the extension of the word is accompanied by a higher degree of abstraction in its new value compared with earlier. Most of the words appear in the language of a certain name for specific concepts. Often, a new concept is wider original and the new meaning of the word is expanded and generalized. Extension of the word - it is one of the most popular features in the history of words.

Good examples of expansion values are the words «manuscript», «picture» and «salary». So «manuscript» - a word that is now refers to any author's copy, whether written by hand or printed. But originally it meant just what is written by hand. The word «picture», which is now used to mean «apainting, drawing, orphotograph» originally meant «something painted». The noun «salary», which now means «a fixed regular payment made usually on amonthly basis by an employer to an employee» was formed in the Middle English period from the Anglo-Norman values «aRomansoldier'sallowance to buy salt». The transition from the concrete to the abstract values of one of the most common phenomena, such as: «ready» (a derivative form of the verb «ridan» - «ride») meant «prepared for a ride», where as now its value «prepared for anything». The word «journey» was borrowed from the French language with the meaning «one day trip», now its value has grown to «a trip of any duration».

For example, the verb «to arrive» (a French borrowing) appeared in the English language with a narrow meaning «tocometoshore, toland». In modern English meaning of the word has evolved and expanded considerably in the total value of «tocome» (e. G. To arrive in a village, town, city, country, at a hotel, hostel, college, theatre, place, etc.).

Another example of the expansion values - the word «pipe». Its original meaning was «a musical wind instrument». At present, it could mean «any hollow oblongcy lindrical body». (E. G. Water pipes).

All auxiliary verbs: «have», «be», «do», «shall», «will» - is a case of generalized lexical meaning, as they have developed grammatical meaning: when they are used as auxiliary verbs, they are deprived of their lexical meaning that they have, when used as a semantic or modal verbs. Example: «I have several books by this writer» and «I have read some books by this author». In the first sentence, the verb «have» is set to «possess», in the second sentence, he has no lexical meaning, grammatical meaning - form Present Perfect.

In all these cases, the meaning becomes more generalized in the course of time.