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Дифференциальные уравнения второго порядка (модель рынка с прогнозируемыми ценами) - В простых моделях рынка спрос и предложение обычно полагают зависящими только от текущей цены на товар.

Grammatical Categories of the Verb

Lecture 9. Typological features of the Verb

Basic notes of the Verb.

Verb as a part of speech is characterized by the following features:

(1) lexico-grammatical meaningof action, cf. work, smile, etc., state, cf. want, belong, know etc.,and process, cf. grow, change, die etc.;

(2) typical stem-building elements, cf. -ate (facilitate), -en (strengthen), -ify (beautify), -ize (organize), -esce (acquiesce); -ти/ть (брати/брать); -тися/ться- сь (братися/молиться-сь);

(3) bilateral combinability with nouns or noun substitutes denoting the doer and the object of the action (He kissed Mary/ Він поцілував Мері) and adverbs (to walk slowly/йти повільно);

(4) functions of the predicate (finites: He wanted a drink/ Він хотів випити) and secondary predicate (verbids: watch him swimming) in a sentence;

(5) categories of person,number,tense,aspect,voice, mood. Besides, English verb has themorphological category of order (perfectforms).

This part of speech in English and Ukrainian has the largest number of features in common. They include first of all the general implicit meaning (the lexico-grammatical nature) of the verb which serves to convey verbiality, i. e. different kinds of activity (go, read, skate), various processes (boil, grow, obtain), the inner state of a person (feel, bother, worry), possession (have, possess), etc. Due to these lexico-grammatical properties the verb generally functions in the sentence as predicate going into some combinations a) with the nominal parts of speech performing the functions of the subject (or the object) of the sentence, for example: The sun shines. Thetrees grow. The studentpassed his examinations. Сонце світить. Дерева ростуть. Студент склав іспити; b) The verb goes into combination with verbs (to want to know, to want to read; хотіти вчитися/знати) or withadverbs (to read well гарно читати); с) with prepositions (to depend on smb/smth. залежати від когось) and also with conjunctions (neither read nor write, to work and rest ні читали, ні писати, працювати і відпочивати).

Classes of the Verb

The main grammar division inside the verb is that between the finite verbs and the verbids. Finite verbs create predicativity of the sentence serving as its predicate in one of three moods: indicative, subjunctive and imperative. Verbidswhich include infinitive, gerund and participle can only make secondary predication.

In accordance to semantic and grammatical criteria verbs divide into notional and semi-notional.

Notional verbs possess full lexical meaning, variable combinability and isolatibility, i.e. they can make a sentence alone. English notional verbs split into two grammar subclasses which are not found in Ukrainian: regular verbs forming their past simple and past participle with the help of -ed, cf. dressed, worked etc. and irregular verbs forming past simple and past participle by means of vowel change, cf. bind – bound, bound, take – took, taken, begin – began – begun; vowel change + -d or -t, cf. tell – told – told, keep – kept – kept. Some verbs are of mixed nature, cf. show – showed – shown. There is also a class of invariables, cf. cost – cost – cost, let – let – let.

Semi-notional verbs have faded lexical meaning, serve to connect words in speech and do not possess isolatibility. Semi-notional verbs fall intolink-verbs, and modal verbs. Link verbs connect the subject of the sentence with the nominal part of the compound nominal predicate, cf. He grew older/Вона стала дорослішою. She seems beautiful/Вона здається гарною.

Link verbs divide into three groups:

1.Link verbs of being, cf. be/бути/доводитися, feel/бути на дотик, look/бути на вигляд, seem/здаватися, taste/бути на смак, smell/ бути на запах. In Ukrainian there are also вважатися,доводитися, зватися, cf. Це вважається/зветься правдою.

2.Link verbs of becoming, cf. get/ become/ ставати, turn/робитися, ставати. English link verbs of beсoming can be substituted in Ukrainian by notion verbs (They grew stronger = Вони стали міцнішими; The wood turned red =Ліс зробився рудим; But: She grew older = Вона постаріла; He became grey = Він посивів).

3.Link verbs of remaining, cf. remain/залишатися, keep/стояти, stay/залишатися, continue/залишатися, сf. The weather kept obstinately hot and dry/Погода вперто стояла жаркою і сухою; He remained/stayed silent/Він залишався мовчазним.

English lexical/nominal verbs split into two subclasses which are not available in Ukrainian. These are 1) regular verbs forming their past stem and the past participle with the help of the ending, -ed, -d or -t (dressed/worked, paid/said, learnt/sent); 2) irregular verbs having their past stems and the past participle formed by way of alteration of their base vowel (bind - bound - bound, take - took - taken, begin -began - begun). Some irregular verbs also have vowel mutation + the past indefinite/past participle -d or -t ending (tell - told - told, keep -kept - kept, think - thought - thought). There are also some mixed-type verbs in English (show — showed - shown, crow — crew — crowed). A separate subclass of irregular verbs form the so-called invariables, which have the same form for the present and past stem/past participle, eg: cast - cast - cast, cost - cost - cost, let - let - let, put - put - put, etc. They are not available in Ukrainian, thought suppletive verbs are common, however, (cf. be - was -were, go - went; бути - є, іти -пішов, пішла, брати - взяв, узяли).

The subdivision of verbs into classes is based in Ukrainian on the correlation between the infinitival stem of the verb on the one hand and its present or simple future stem on the other. On this morphological basis thirteen classes of verbs are distinguished in Ukrainian (Table 18). In the first class of verbs the infinitival stem has the suffixes -ува-/-юва,and the present tense stem the suffix -yj-/-ioj, -j-: куп-ува-ти - куп-yj-ють; танц-юва-ти - танц-уj-уть; лупц-юва-ти - лупц-yj-ymb.

Classes of the Verb

Modal verbs serve to connect the subject of the sentence with the part of the verbal compound predicate, cf. He may be reading in the sitting room/Він мабуть читає у вітальні. They include can/могти, may/могти, should/слід/треба, ought to/слід, have to/мати, be to/мати бути, dare/сміти, need/потребувати; would/ shall/will do not have Ukrainian modal equivalents.

Besides link verbs and modal verbs there exists a group of analytical wordmorphemes also called auxiliary verbs: be, do, have, shall/will/should/would which correspond to one Ukrainian verb бути.

English analytical wordmorphemes are used to express the categorical meanings of:

(a) continuousaspect (I am/was/’ll be working, He/she/it is/was/’ll be working, They are/were/’ll be working, Am/was/shall I/is/was/will he be working, I’m not/wasn’t/won’t be working, He isn’t/wasn’t/ won’t be working);

(b)negative and interrogativeforms of the non-Continuous aspect of the present and past tense (I don’t/didn’t/Do I/did I work, He/she/it does not/did not work/ Does/did he/she/it work);

(c)perfectforms (I/they have/had/’ll have worked, He/she/it has/had/’ll have worked);

(d) passivevoice (I am/was asked/’ll be asked, He is/was/’ll be asked, They are/were/’ll be asked);

(e) imperative mood (Do come in!/Don’t come in);

(f) subjunctive mood (He ordered that everybody be present/should be present, If I were you I would do it).

In accordance with their combinability with the subject and the object of the sentence verbs divide into subjective and objective.

Subjective verbs are associated with nouns (noun equivalents) denoting the doer of the action, cf. He got up and left the room. Objective verbs are associated, on the one hand, with the nouns (noun equivalents) functioning as the subject of the sentence and, on the other hand, with those denoting the object, cf. She kissed him fairly. Objective verbs that are connected with their object words directly are called transitive, cf. He was reading a book. All the other verbs, both subjective and objective, are called intransitive, cf. He was speaking to her.

Classes of the Verb

Verbs of incomplete predication are of isomorphic nature. They are presented in English and Ukrainian in four common groups, which are as follows:

1. Auxiliary verbs(to be, to do, to have, shall/will), which are used in English in the corresponding person and tense form to express the following categorial meanings of the verb: a) the continuousaspect, i. e. the present, the past and future continuous/progressive tenses (/ am/ was, shall be reading); the interrogative and negative or future tense forms of the Indefinite group of tenses (Doeshe speak English? He did not know me. Will he come soon?); the imperative mood/imperative and incentive meanings: Do it now! Do come, please! The perfect aspect forms of the verb: I have done it. He had had his dinner by then already. We shall have translated the text by then. To express the so-called subjunctive form of the verb: He ordered that everybody be present. Whoever you be you have no right to offend him.

To express other subjunctive mood forms: His aunt would not give the photograph. (Hardy) I suggest we should meet here. (Snow) I wish / were fifteen. (Maugham) "If they could be answered, surely they'd have been answered by now." (Ibid). Auxiliary verbs in Ukrainian are restricted only to one verb бути, which is polyfunctional and is used to form some categorial meanings: a) the passive voice (текст був перекладений); b) the analytical future tense form (текст будеперекладений); с) some subjunctive mood forms (якби я був знав, я був би прийшов); d) the pluperfect tense form, which fully corresponds to the English past perfect. (Cf. Ніби й задрімав бувзразу, але щось приверзлося, то й проснувся. (Головко) Я заходив був до вас якось улітку, але вас не застав тоді вдома).

2. Close to the auxiliary by their function (and often by their lexical meaning, too) are English and Ukrainian modal verbs. Their number and nomenclature is larger in English (allomorphism) than in Ukrainian. Cf.:

English:can, may, must, should, Ukrainian:вміти, могти, мусити, would, ought (to), have/be, shall, слід/треба, мати (маєш знати, він will, dare, daresay, need. має бути), сміти, потребувати.

Linking verbs (дієслова-зв'язки) in both contrasted languages form a verbal, nominal or mixed-type compound predicate. They fall into three main groups:

1. 1. Linking verbs of being,which do not always have direct equiv alents in English and Ukrainian. Cf. to be, to feel, to look, to seem, to taste, to smell — бути, виявлятися, зватися, вважатися, доводитися (Не looks young/tired) or in Ukrainian: Це зветься роботою. Цездається правдою).

2. 2. Linking verbs of becoming (not all of which have equiva lents in Ukrainian):to become, to get, to grow, to turn — ставати, робитися (They grew stronger/Вони стали міцнішими. Ліс зробився рудим.). Не became a teacher — Він став учителем. But: He turned gray/ Він посивів. Вона постаріла. She grew older.

3. 3. Linking verbs of remaining (to remain, to keep, to stay, to continue):He remained silent/satisfied. Він зостався задоволений. The winter continued damp and wet. (Cronin) The weather kept obstinately hot and dry. (Wells) Погода вперто стояла жаркою і сухою.

Grammatical Categories of the Verb

The finite verb in the contrasted languages has six commonmorphological categories which are realised partly with the help of synthetic means (inflexions) and partly through different analytical means. Thus, the categories of person andnumberare realised in bothcontrasted languagessynthetically, whereasthe category of tenseis realised both synthetically and analytically;the category of aspectis realised in English synthetically or analytically (continuous) but only synthetically in Ukrainian; the category of voiceis realised only analytically in English but it may be realised synthetically and analytically in Ukrainian. Similarly with the category of mood, which is realised in both languages synthetically and analytically.

Finite verbs in both contrasted languages have six common morphological categorieswhich are realized with the help of synthetic (person and number) and analytical means (tense, aspect,voice, mood). Besides, English has the morphological category of order (perfect forms) realized analytically.

Ukrainian verbs change their form in accordance with the person,number,tense. This change is called declension. The inflexions of Ukrainian verbs in different categorical forms depend on the verb class. Subdivision of verbs into classes is based on the correlation between the infinitival stem of the verb, on the one hand, and its present tense stem, on the other. The present tense stem (нес-уть, бажа-ють, сид- ять, леж-ать) is the basis for: (a) present tense and simple future; (b) imperative mood.

There are two declensions singled out in accordance with the character of the vowel in present tenseinflexions: the 1st declension has inflexions: (a) -уть/ють in the 3d person plural, cf. пиш-уть, каж-уть, чита-ють; (b) the vowel -е/є in the rest of the cases, cf. пиш-еш, каж-емо, чита-єте, пиш-е, чита-є; the 2nd declension has -ать/-ять in the 3d person plural, cf. біж-ать, любл-ять, го-ять; (b) -и/і/ї in the rest of the cases, cf. люб-иш, біж-иш, люб-ить, го-їмо.

The category of personserves to represent an action as associated by the speaker with himself (a group of persons including himself – I/we; я/ми), the person or persons addressed (you; ти/ви), the person or persons not participating in the act of communication (he/she/it/they; він/вона/воно/вони).

In English person is represented:

(a) in the simple present tense forms (3d person singular :: the rest of the persons) by the opposeme zero :: -s (I/you/we/they work :: he/she/it works);

(b) in continuous aspect forms of the present tenses by discontinuous morphemes am...ing :: are ... ing (1st person singular :: 2nd person singular and plural; 3d person plural); am... ing :: is ...ing (1st person singular 3d person singular);

(c) in perfect order forms of the present tense by discontinuous morphemes has...ed/en ::have...ed/en (3d person singular :: the rest of the persons). In Ukrainian the category of person is expressed by the inflexions of present tense, synthetic (perfective) and analytical (non-perfective) future tense forms.

The category of number shows whether the action is associated with one doer or more than one. In English the category of number is represented in its purity only by the forms of the verb to be was :: were in past tense and by the discontinuous morphemes of the continuous aspect of the past tenseand the past tense in the passive voice containing was/were. In the rest of the forms (am – are, is – are; speak – speaks; has – have) number is blended with person.

In Ukrainian the category of number is represented by the inflexions of the present tense and also synthetic (perfective) and analytical (non-perfective) future tense forms, the paste tense and the subjunctive mood forms and also by the imperative mood forms.

Completely allomorphic is the expression of the category of person in Ukrainian imperative moodforms, cf. пиши – пишіть, будьмо здорові – будьте здорові, встань – встаньте etc.

The category of tense shows the relation of the time of the action denoted by the verb to the moment of speech. There are three tenses both in English and Ukrainian: present, past and future.In English the category of tense is represented by a system of three member opposemes such as works/work :: worked :: ’ll work; am/is/are working :: was/were working :: ’ll be working; has worked :: had worked :: ’ll have worked. In English tense is blended with aspect and time correlation and is expressed synthetically (present/past simple, affirmative) and analytically (present/past simple negative and interrogative; future simple; present/past future continuous/ perfect/ perfect continuous).

In Ukrainian, with the exception of non-perfective future, which is rendered analytically, the category of tense is expressed synthetically: by a system of inflexions, different for the 1st, 2nd and 3d person and singular/plural number in the present and perfective future, and for the singular (masculine, feminine and neuter gender) and plural number in the past, cf. нес-у/нес-еш/нес-е/нес-емо/ нес-ете/ нес- уть // хвал-ю/хвал-иш/хвал-ить/хвал-имо/хвал-ите/хвал-ять нес-е :: ніс/несл- а/несл-о :: нес-тиме/ при-несе/буде нести/ хвал-и-тиме/ похвал-ить/ буде хвалити.

The category of aspect shows the character of the action, i.e. whether the action is taken in its progress or simply stated, its nature being unspecified. In English it is represented by a system of two member opposemes such as work/works :: am/is/are working; worked :: was/were working; has/have worked :: has/have been working; had worked :: had been working; ’ll work ::’ll be working; to work :: to be working. The meaning of continuous aspect is expressed with the help of the discontinuousmorpheme be ...Ving. Aspect in English is blended with tense (present/past/future simple :: present/past/future continuous) and time correlation (present/past/future continuous :: present/past/future perfect continuous).

In Ukrainian there is no morphological category of aspect. The meaning of continuous aspectblended with that of passive voice and is expressed by lexico- grammatical means, i.e. the transitive verb stems with the suffixes -сь/ся and a corresponding adverb identifying the moment of action, cf.Школа зараз/ще/вже/давно будується. Школа ще будувалась/ будуватиметься.

The category of voice shows whether the action is represented as issuing from its subject or as experienced by its object. Both English and Ukrainian have two voices: active and passive. The category of voice is represented by the opposemes like loves/love :: am/is/are loved, loved :: was/were loved, am/is/are loving :: am/is/are being loved, was/were loving :: was/were being loved, have/has loved :: have/has been loved, had loved :: had been loved, ’ll love :: ’ll be loved. In English passive voice is blended with tense, aspect and time correlation. It is built with the help of the discontinuous morpheme be .... V-ed/en(past participle).

In Ukrainian the passive voice is expressed by the discontinuous morpheme: бути ... Vpast participle, cf. Лист (є)/був/буде написаний/ корова (є)/була/буде видоєна/ болото (є)/було/буде висушене. Alongside with this, forms in -но/то are used, cf. Лист (є)/був/буде написано/ корову (є)/була/буде видоєно/ болото (є)/було/буде висушено. Ukrainian affixes -сь/ся which are added to the non- perfective verbs express the meaning of continuous aspect and passive voice, cf. Хата будується/будувалась/будуватиметься.

The category of order (time correlation) shows whether the action is viewed as prior to (perfect) or irrespective of (non-perfect) other actions and situations. In English it is represented by the system of opposemes such as writes/write – has/have written, wrote – had written, writing – having written, to be written – to have been written. Thus, in English there exist present, past and future perfect forms which are formed with the help of the discontinuous morpheme ha...ed/en (has/have written, had written, ’ll have written). In Ukrainian this category is built with the help of the analytical word-morpheme бути and the past form (задрімав був/задрімала була/ задрімали були).

The category of mood reflects the relation of the action denoted by the verb to reality from the speaker’s point of view. Both contrasted languages have the system of three moods: indicative,imperative, subjunctive.

English imperative mood lacks purely subjunctive forms employing the forms of the past and past perfect and the past of the modal verbs would/should, cf. If I knew that I would change my mind/ If I had known that before I would have changed my mind. The only exception is the specific form of the verb to be (Were she at home I would come over). In Ukrainian subjunctive also employs the forms of the past and pluperfect and adds the particle би, cf. Якби я знав, я б передумав/Якби я був знав це раніше, я був би прийшов/ Була б вона удома, я б прийшов.

The imperative mood in English is expressed synthetically (affirmative: do it!) and analytically (negative: Don’t do it!). English imperative with let (Let me/him/her/them/us do it! Don’t let me/him/her/them/us do it! Let me/him/her/them/us not do it!) has the corresponding Ukrainian forms with the particles нум (singular) and нумо (plural), cf. Нум я зачитаю! Нумо заспівайте!