ПОЗНАВАТЕЛЬНОЕ

Оси и плоскости тела человека - Тело человека состоит из определенных топографических частей и участков, в которых расположены органы, мышцы, сосуды, нервы и т.д.

Отёска стен и прирубка косяков - Когда на доме не достаёт окон и дверей, красивое высокое крыльцо ещё только в воображении, приходится подниматься с улицы в дом по трапу.

Дифференциальные уравнения второго порядка (модель рынка с прогнозируемыми ценами) - В простых моделях рынка спрос и предложение обычно полагают зависящими только от текущей цены на товар.

II. Intensification of a Feature

C) Interaction of Logical and Emotive Meaning

Interjections and Exclamatory Words. Interjections are words we use when we express our feelings strongly and which may be said to exist in language as conventional symbols of human emotions. In traditional grammars the interjection is regarded as a part of speech. But there is another view which regards the interjection as a sentence.

However a close investigation proves that interjection is a word with strong emotive meaning. E.g. Oh, where are you going to, all you Big Steamers?

Here are some of the meanings that can be expressed by interjections: joy, delight, admiration, approval, disbelief, astonishment, fright, regret, dissatisfaction, boredom, sadness, blame, reproach, protest, horror, irony, sarcasm, self-assurance, despair, disgust, surprise, sorrow, and many others. Oh! Ah! Pooh! Gosh! Alas! Heavens! Dear me! God! Come on! Look here! By the Lord! Bless me! Humbug! Terrible! Awful! Great! Wonderful! Fine! Man! Boy! Why! Well!

Interjections such as: Heavens! Good gracious! God knows! Bless me! are exclamatory words generally used as interjections. It must be noted that some adjectives and adverbs can also take on the function of interjections - such as Terrible! Awfully! Great! Wonderful! Splendid! These adjectives acquire strong emotional colouring and are equal in force to interjections.

Epithet: a word (a group of words) carrying an expressive (emotive) characterization of an object described: “Full many a glorious morning have I seen..."(Sh.)

The epithet isbased on the interplay of emotive and logical meaning in an attributive word, phrase or even sentence, used to characterize an object and pointing out to the reader some of the properties or features of the object with the aim of giving an individual perception and evaluation of these features or properties.

Classification of Epithets

From the point of view of their compositional structure epithets may be divided into:

1) Simple (adjectives, nouns, participles): e.g. He looked at them in animalpanic.

2) Compound: e.g. apple - faced man;

3) Sentence and phrase epithets: e.g. It is his do - it – yourselfattitude.

4) Reversed epithets - composed of 2 nouns linked by an of phrase: e.g. “a shadow of a smile”.

Semantically epithets according to I.R.Galperin can be:

1) associated with the noun following it, pointing to a feature which is essential to the objects they describe: dark forest; careful attention.

2)unassociatedwith the noun, epithets that add a feature which is unexpected and which strikes the reader: smiling sun, voiceless sounds.

Oxymoron is a conjunction of seemingly contradictory notions. It is a combination of two words in which the meaning clash being opposite in sense: e.g. speaking silence, cold fire, living death, sweet sorrow; pleasantly ugly face; deafening silence; horribly beautiful. “And faith unfaithful kept him falsely true” (A.Tennison). Trite oxymoron. E.g. awfully beautiful.

The following example describes the author’s attitude to New York: ‘I despise its vastness and power. It has the poorest millionaires, the littlest great men, the plainest beauties, the lowest skyscrapers of any town I ever saw. (Satiric mocking)

Close to oxymoron is paradox - a statement that is absurd on the surface. E.g. War is peace. The worse - the better.

D) Interaction of Logical and Nominal Meaning

Antonomasiais a SD based on the usage of a common noun instead of a proper name and vice versa to characterize the person simultaneously with naming him – the so called “speaking names»: Lady Teasle, Miss Sharp, Mister Logic. Every Caesar has his Brutus.

Antonomasiais the result of interaction between logical and nominal meanings of a word:

1) When the proper name of a person, who is famous for some reasons, is put for a person having the same feature. e.g. Her husband is an Othello.

2) A common noun is used instead of a proper name, e.g. I agree with you Mr. Logic, e.g. My Dear Simplicity.

3) Speaking names: both naming and characterizing the personage under discussion – Lady Teasle - дар Божий, Mr. Surface, Mr. Snake.

II. Intensification of a Feature

Simile.The intensification of some feature of the concept is realized in a device called simile. Similes set one object against another regardless of the fact that they may be completely alien to each other. The simile gives rise to a new understanding of the object. The properties of an object maybe viewed from different angles, i. e. its state, its actions, and manners. Accordingly, similes may be based on adjective - attributes, adverb - modifiers, verb - predicates etc.

Similes have formal elements in their structure: connective words such as like, as, such as, as if, seem.

Periphrasis- is a round - about way of speaking used to name some familiar object or phenomenon. Longer phrase is used instead of a shorter one. Some periphrases are traditional. E.g. The giver of rings, the victor lord, the leader of hosts (king), the play of swords(battle), a shield-bearer(warrior), the cap and gown (student), the fair sex (women), my better half (my wife).

The traditional periphrasis is an important feature of epic poetry.

Periphrases are divided into:

1. Logical - based on inherent properties of a thing. E.g. Instrument of destruction (pistols), the object of administration.

2. Figurative- based on imagery: metaphor, metonymy. E.g. To tie a knot - to get married; in disgrace of fortune - bad luck.

Euphemistic periphrasesare used to avoid some unpleasant things, or taboo things. E.g. To pass away - to die.

Hyperboleis a deliberate overstatement or exaggeration, the aim of which is to intensify one of the features of the object in question to such a degree as to show its utter absurdity. Like many SDs, hyperbole may lose its quality as a SD through frequent repetition and become a unit of the language as a system, reproduced in speech in its unaltered from. E.g. A thousand pardons, scared to death, immensely obliged.

Hyperbole is a device which sharpens the reader's ability to make a logical assessment of the utterance. This is achieved, as in case with other devices, by awakening the dichotomy of thought and feeling where thought takes the upper hand though not to the detriment of feeling.

Hyperbole is an exaggerated statement not meant to be taken literally to express a highly emotional attitude towards the thing described: “He was all starch and vinegar.” (D.) “The girls were dressed to kill” (J.Br.)

Meiosis/Understatement

Meiosis/Understatement is a figure of speech which intentionally understates something or implies that it is less in significance, size, than it really is. For example,

- a lawyer defending a schoolboy who set fire to school, might call the fact of arson a ‘prank’ (проделка).

- “I fear I am not in my perfect mind” ( from King Lear by William Shakespeare)

The word meiosis originated from the Greek word “meioo” that means “to diminish” or “to make smaller”. Meiosis can be defined as a witty understatement that belittles or dismisses something or somebody, particularly by making use of terms that gives impression that something is less important than it is or it should be. Meiosis examples are sometimes also used in the sense of a synonym of litotes.

Function of Meiosis.Meiosis, in fact, illustrates tone and mannerism such as quiet and brooding where protagonists are often understated in tone and action. Meiosis is very common everywhere in our daily lives, old and modern literature and media. We can distinguish understatement in modesty, in humour, in composed and calm characters, in personalities where it gives rhetorical effects to the speech delivered by them. Since it is a method used to give information that diminishes the response of an overemotional occurrence, the basic function of meiosis is to reduce the significance of someone or something in order to heighten something else simultaneously.

Litotesis a device in which an affirmation is expressed by denying its contrary. Usually litotes presupposes double negation. One through a negative particle (no, not), the other - through a word with negative meaning. Its function is to convey doubts of the speaker concerning the exact characteristics of the object or a feeling.

Litotes is a trope in which an affirmative is expressed by the negative or vice versa: “It was not without a certain wild pleasure I ran before the wind (Jane Eyre). E.g. It's not a bad thing - It's a good thing. `I was not a little upset' - `I was very upset'.

E.g. He is no coward. - He is a brave man.

E.g. He was not without taste.

Structural patterns of litotes:

1) The presence of the key-element “not”. “It is not unreasonable.”

2) The key-element “too” + “not”. “I am not too sure.”

3) The key-element “rather, pretty, scarcely, etc…”

Table 2