ПОЗНАВАТЕЛЬНОЕ

Оси и плоскости тела человека - Тело человека состоит из определенных топографических частей и участков, в которых расположены органы, мышцы, сосуды, нервы и т.д.

Отёска стен и прирубка косяков - Когда на доме не достаёт окон и дверей, красивое высокое крыльцо ещё только в воображении, приходится подниматься с улицы в дом по трапу.

Дифференциальные уравнения второго порядка (модель рынка с прогнозируемыми ценами) - В простых моделях рынка спрос и предложение обычно полагают зависящими только от текущей цены на товар.

Classification of Sentences

Adjective.

The adjective expresses the categorial meaning of property of a substance, e.g.: hard work. It can not be used without a word denoting the substance which it characterizes[1]. Even in contexts where no substance is named, it is presupposed (implied) or denoted by a substitutive word “one”, e.g.: Red is my favouritecolour;The blouse is a bit small. Have you got a bigger one? When the adjective is used independently it is substantivized, i.e. it acquires certain features of a noun. The functions: 1)when combined with nouns, adjectives perform the function of an attribute (either in preposition to the noun modified or in post-position if accompanied by adjuncts), e.g.: a suspicious man; a man suspicious of his wife; 2) when combined with link verbs they perform the function of a predicative (part of a compound nominal predicate), e.g.: The man was very suspicious of his wife. But there are adjectives that can be used only attributively, e.g.: joint (venture), main (point), lone (wolf), live (music), daily (magazine), etc.; there are adjectives that are used only predicatively (usually adjectives denoting states and relations), e.g.: glad, fond, concerned, etc.;

Formally, adjectives are characterized by a specific set of word-building affixes, e.g.: hopeful, flawless, bluish, famous, decorative, accurate, inaccurate, basic, etc.

Adjectives are traditionally divided into two grammatically relevant subclasses: qualitative and relative adjectives. Qualitative adjectives denote the qualities of objects as such, e.g.: red, long, beautiful, etc. Relative adjectives denote qualities of objects in relation to other objects; such adjectives are usually derived from nouns, e.g.: wood – wooden, ice – icy, etc. The ability to form degrees of comparison is usually treated as the formal sign of qualitative adjectives. But this is not exactly the case. the basic semantic function of qualitative adjectives is evaluation, and they normally form the degrees of comparison; the basic semantic function of relative adjectives is specification, and they normally do not form the degrees of comparison. Still, when used in the evaluative function, both qualitative and relative adjectives form the degrees of comparison; when used in the specificative function, neither qualitative, nor relative adjectives form the degrees of comparison.

Among the words denoting substantive properties there is a set of words denoting states, that are used predominantly in the predicative function and are united by a common formal mark, the prefix ‘a-’, e.g.: afraid, afire, alike, etc. (cf.: the suffix ‘-o’ in Russian - холодно, тепло, весело, etc.) Traditionally they are referred to as “predicative adjectives” or a subtype of adverbs. In Russian linguistics such linguists as L. V. Scherba, V. V.Vinogradov and others state that these words constitute a separate class of words, a part of speech called “the category of state words”, or “statives”; their status as a separate part of speech in English is supported by B. Ilyish.

But they are not a separate part of speech, but a specific subset within the general class of adjectives

Substantivation is a type of conversion - a lexical word-building process of zero-derivation. When adjectives are fully substantivized, they make a new word, a noun, which is connected with the adjective only etymologically. There is also a group of partially substantivized adjectives which are characterized by mixed (hybrid) lexico-grammatical features: they convey the mixed adjectival-nounal semantics of property; in a sentence they perform functions characteristic of nouns; and they have deficient paradigms of number and article determination (they are not changed according to the category of number and are combined only with the definite article). They include words denoting groups of people sharing the same feature – the rich, the beautiful, the English, and words denoting abstract notions – the unforgettable, the invisible, etc.

21 The category of comparison expresses the relative evaluation of the amount of the quality of some referent in comparison with other referents possessing the same quality. Three forms constitute this category: the positive degree, the comparative degree, and the superlative degree forms of the adjective. The basic form, known as the positive degree, has no special formal mark, e.g.: tall, beautiful; the comparative degreeis marked by two kinds of forms; synthetical forms with the suffix “-er” and analytical forms with the auxiliary word more, e.g.: taller, more beautiful; the superlative degree is also formed either synthetically with the help of the grammatical suffix “-est”, or analytically with the help of the auxiliary word most, e.g.: tallest, most beautiful. The synthetic and analytical degrees stand in complementary distribution to each other, their choice is determined by syllabo-phonetic forms of adjectives and is covered in detail in practical grammar textbooks. Also, there are suppletive forms of the degrees of comparison, e.g.: bad – worse – worst.

The superlative degree can be used instead of the positive degree in contexts where no comparison is meant, to denote a very high degree of a certain quality intensely presented, cf.: She is a most unusual woman (She is an extremely unusual woman); It was most generous of you (It was very generous of you). This kind of grammatical transposition is known as “the elative superlative”. Thus, the superlative degree is used in two senses: the absolute superiority (unrestricted superiority) and the elative superiority (a very high degree of a certain quality). The formal mark of the difference between the two cases is the possibility of indefinite article determination or the use of the zero article with the noun modified by the adjective in the superlative degree, e.g.: It was a most generous gesture; a sensation of deepest regret.

The quantitative evaluation of a quality involves not only an increase but also its reduction, the adjective with the words less and least, e.g.: important, less important, least important. These combinations denote what can be called “negative comparison”, or “reverse comparison”; Thus, the whole category of comparison is constituted not by three forms, but by five forms: one positive degree form (important), two comparative degree forms, direct and reverse (more important, less important), and two superlative degree forms: direct and reverse (most important, least important).

Adverb

The adverb is a notional part of speech denoting, like the adjective, property; the adjectivedenotes properties of a substance, and the adverb denotes non-substantive properties: in most cases the properties of actions (to walk quickly), or the properties of other properties (very quick), or the properties of the situations in which the processes occur (to walk again).

Adverbs are characterized by their combinability with verbs, adjectives and other adverbs, which they modify. They perform the functions of various adverbial modifiers: of time (yesterday), place (there), of manner (secretly), etc. The adverbs which refer to whole situations are defined as situation-“determinants”, e.g.: They quarreled again.

adverbs can combine with nouns and perform a peculiar function of mixed adverbial-attributive character, e.g.: the trip abroad, his return home, the then President of the US, etc.

Form:adverbs are divided into simple and derived. Simple adverbs:more, very, there, then, here, etc. The characteristic adverbial word-building affixes are the following: simply, clockwise, backward,ahead, etc. The most productive derivational model of adverbs is the one with the suffix ‘-ly’. The other structural types are compoundadverbs, e.g.: sometimes, downstairs, etc., and stable adverbial phrases or composite phrasal adverbs, e.g.: upside down, at least, a great deal of, from time to time, etc.

Some adverbs are freely combined with prepositions(from above, before now, until then,etc). and, since combinability with prepositions is characteristic of nouns, they make a peculiar set of partially substantivized adverbs (“adverbids”), i.e. their lexico-grammatical status is intermediary between adverbs and nouns.

There is a large group of adverbs homonymous with words of other parts of speech, both notional and functional.:a hard work – to work hard, a flat roof – to fall flat into the water, etc. Since there are no other differential features except for their positions, these words can be defined as “fluctuant conversives”.

Adverbs should not be confused with adverb-like elements, which are interchangeable with prepositions (and sometimes prefixes) and when placed after the verb form a semantic blend with it, e.g.: to give – to give up, to give in, to give away, etc.; to go down the hill - to download, to downplay - to sit down, to bring down, to bend down, etc. These functional words make a special set of particles; they are intermediary between the word and the morpheme and can be called “postpositives”.

Traditionally, adverbs are divided on the basis of their general semantics into qualitative, quantitative, and circumstantial. The qualitative adverbs denote the inherent qualities of actions and other qualities; most of them are derived from qualitative adjectives, e.g.: bitterly, hard, beautifully, well, etc. The quantitativeadverbs show quantity measure; genuine quantitative adverbs are usually derived from numerals, e.g.: twice, three times, tenfold, manifold, etc. The circumstantial adverbs denote mainly the circumstances of time and place (they can also be defined as “orientative”), e.g.: today, here, when, far, ashore, abroad, often, etc.

The whole class of adverbs can be divided, first, into nominal and pronominal, then the nominal adverbs can be subdivided into qualitative and orientative, the former including genuine qualitative adverbs and degree adverbs, the latter divided into temporal and local adverbs, with further possible subdivisions of each group.

23the category of comparison.

Like adjectives, adverbs are also subdivided functionally into evaluative and specificative. When used in their evaluative function, adverbs (qualitative adverbs, predominantly) distinguish the category of comparison and have five morphological forms: one positive, two comparative (direct and reverse) and two superlative (direct and reverse), e.g.: bitterly – more bitterly, less bitterly – most bitterly, least bitterly. Their superlative degree form can also be used either in the absolute sense (to denote absolute superiority) or in the elative sense, denoting a high degree of the property, e.g.: The youngest kid cried most bitterly of all. – The kid cried most bitterly. When used in the specificative function, adverbs are unchangeable, e.g.: We meet today; We came ashore.

The Numeral

The numeral is a class of notional words expressing number or order used in the function of the subject, object, predicative and attribute connected in the sentence with the noun and morphologically invariable.

All the numerals in English are divided into two main classes: cardinal and ordinal numerals. The difference between these two classes of numerals lies in their lexical meaning and in their word-formation. Cardinal numerals express number while ordinal numerals express order. Almost all the ordinal numerals are formed in the same way from the corresponding cardinal numerals. The exception makes only the first three numerals: the first has developed from the Old English superlative degree of the adverb fore which meant before or in front; second is a Latin borrowing secundus, the following; the numeral third has developed from the O.E. bridda in which / and r changed their places, the process called metathesis.

Some numerals in English may be substantivized, e.i. both cardinal and ordinal and fractional may obtain the characteristic of the noun this is shown by the fact that they may be modified by an adjective used \vith the article, e.g. the first, hundreds, the safe-half, at first, by dozens.

Such numerals as hundred, thousand may also be substantivized.

When we say two hundred or two thousand the numeral is used as an attribute and it precedes the noun directly. When the numeral is substantivized as in two hundreds of men it cannot directly precede the noun but is used with the preposition o/and acquires the category of number.

In fractions the numerator is a cardinal and the denominator is an ordinal used as a noun, e.i. it is substantivized and acquires the plural form, e.g. 2/5 (two fifths); 2/3 (two thirds).

Some nouns are developing into numerals such as pair, dozen, score, couple. When preceded by numerals they are almost never used in plural, e.g. two pair of shoes, three dozen of books.

As to their structure English numerals fall into:

1. Simple (from one to twelve).

2. Derivative formed by means of the suffixes -teen and -ty,

3. Compound having two root-morphemes, as in thirty-five, twenty-one.

4. Composite: five hundred and thirty-one, two hundred and three.

The Pronoun

The pronoun is a class of words the characteristics of which differ greatly from the characteristics of other classes of notional words. The pronoun does not name any thing or characteristics of a thing. If we take a noun, for example, a book or table we know what thing is meant without any context. If we take the pronoun he or this we do not know who or what is meant without a preceding context. The same refers to all the pronouns. That is why we say that the pronoun points to a thing, person or property without naming them. These lexical characteristics are the main points of difference between the class of pronouns and all other classes of notional words. All the other notional words always name some phenomena existing in reality while the pronoun has a more general meaning than the other notional words in English. Since a pronoun does not name a definite thing it can point to different thing according to the context. It may point to a noun or to an adjective. That is why the pronoun has a wider and more general meaning than the noun and the adjective.

1. Personal (I. he. she. it. we. you, they: me. him. her. it. us. you. them).

2. Possessive (my. his. her. its. our. your; mine. his. hers. its. ours, yours, their(s)).

3. Reflexive (myself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, themselves).

4. Demonstrative (this, these, that, those, such, the same).

5. Interrogative (who. whose, what, which).

6. Connective:

a) relative (who. whose, which, that, as);

b) conjunctive (who. whose, which, what).

7. Defining (each, every, everybody, everyone, everything, all. either, both, other, another, etc.).

8. Indefinite (some. any. somebody, anybody, something, anything, someone, anyone)

9. Negative (no. none, neither, nobody, nothing, no one. etc.).

10. Reciprocal (each other, one another).

27, 28

Phrase or word-combinationis a grammatical unit of two or more words which have their own lexical meaning when taken separately. Here a phrase differs greatly from an analytical form. In analytical forms one of the components is an auxiliary element which means that it is completely devoid of any lexical meaning. The second component is the carrier of the lexical meaning of the whole combination.

E.g. I have read this book. I have to read this book.

In linguistic theory there is an opinion (Professor Smirnitsky) that a phrase must consist of at least two notional words. This point of view is hardly to be acceptable because if we admit this point of view then this classification of phrases will leave outside such a large group of combination of words as preposition ^ noun.

As a phrase is one of the basics units of syntax alongside with a sentence it is necessary to discuss the difference between the phrase and the sentence.

The phrase and the sentence differ in the following respects:

1. Phrases do not express predication whereas the expression of predication is one of the mam features of any sentence. Predication is a whole complex of relations between the subject and the predicate expressed grammatically, e.g. She studies hard. I saw him run.

2. A phrase has no intonation, just as a word has none, while intonation is one of the most important features of any sentence.

3. A phrase is a means of naming different phenomena, that is why a phrase may express some thought or it may not whereas a sentence as such usually expresses a complete thought.

4. A phrase is always represented by not fewer than two words while a sentence may be formed by a single word.

5. Each component of a phrase may undergo grammatical changes in accordance with grammatical categories represented in it and the identity of a phrase, the pattern of a phrase will not be destroyed or violated, it will be preserved. E.g. Play with a child. Playing with a child. V + prep. + N Playing with children.

With a sentence things are different as a sentence is a unit with every word having its definite form, a change in the form of one or more words would produce a new sentence. E.g. He plays with a child.

He is playing with a child.

Classification of Phrases

All phrases may be classified on the bases of two criteria: according to their structure and according to their function in a sentence.

The structural or morphological classification of phrases deals with two groups:

1. The first group is represented by simple phrases which consist of two words. One of them is a head word and the other is a subordinate word. e.g. Clever remark (head word).

2. The second group is represented by compound phrases which have besides head words and subordinate words some extending elements, e.g. Discussion of an interesting book.

Here, in the phrase, interesting is an extending element.

The Syntactical Classification of Ph'rases

According to their function in a sentence phrases may be divided into two groups:

1. Phrases which perform an independent syntactical function of one or more parts in a sentence.

E.g. He was to go their (modal compound verbal predicate).

We began working (aspective compound verbal predicate). He writes many letters (the phrase is used in the function of two members of a sentence, i.e. the predicate and the object of the sentence).

2. Phrases which do not perform any independent syntactical function in a sentence but their functions are equivalent to the functions ol prepositions, conjunctions and modal words. These phrases are equivalent of the corresponding parts of speech, e.g. apart from, in order that, down to. in accordance with, etc.

29 The definition which is widely used in linguistic theory characterizes sentence as the following one:

Sentence is a unit of language and speech which expresses more or less complete thought and has a definite grammatical structure and intonation.

Even sentence shows the relation of the statement to reality from the point of view of the speaker.

However the definition of a sentence given above does not reflect all the characteristic features of all the variants of structures that may be encountered in language in general and in the English language in particular. For example. in connection with such combinations as shop notices (Bookshop] and book titles (English Grammar) two interpretations have been advanced:

1. These structures are sentences which mean This is a bookshop and This is an English Grammar. These structures arc interpreted as predicatives of sentences in which the subject and the link-verb are omitted. Thus, these structures are looked upon as units of communication, namely sentences.

2. Such notices as Book shop and such titles as English Grammar are not units of communication and they are merely appended to the object they denote.

The question arises whether we should consider these units of nomination as sentences or phrases. Since there is no established satisfactory definition of sentence as such the question is not yet solved.

It is also necessary to mention special cases when novels have titles formulated as sentences.

E.g. Tomorrow is with us. The stars look down. Say no to death.

These titles are certainly sentences but they are units of nomination not communication, e.g. Have you read "The stars look down'"?

One more problem concerning the definition of sentence has to be considered in connection with the idea of paradigmatic syntax. In it such units as He has arrived. He has not arrived, Has he arrived'?, He will arrive. etc. are treated as different forms of one and the same sentence just as arrive, arrives, etc. are forms of one and the same verb.

But from the point of view of communication such structures are different sentences since they convey different information. The above given definition of sentence does not however reflect all these questions.

The sentence is very closely connected with what we call judgement in logic. In a judgement the speaker affirms or negates a certain fact, the existence of something. Every judgement has two members: the logical subject and the logical predicate. Logical subject and logical predicate do not always correspond to grammatical subject and predicate. The logical predicate is always stressed for it carries a logical stress in a sentence. Every judgement exists in the form of a sentence but not every sentence is a judgement because a sentence unlike a judgement is capable of expressing emotionally coloured emphatic statements, orders, questions, etc.

E.g. This is a table (it is a judgement and a sentence). Go to the blackboard (a sentence). Do you like the weather9 (a sentence). How sad! (a sentence).

The sentence is a many-sided phenomenon which may be approached from different points of view.

30Simple Sentence: Constituent Structure.

The basic predicative meanings of the typical English sentence are expressed by the finite verb, which is immediately connected with the subject of the sentence. This predicative connection is commonly referred to as the "predicative line" of the sentence. Depending on their predicative complexity, sentences can feature one predicative line or several (more than one) predicative lines; in other words, sentences may be, respectively, "monopredicative" and "polypredicative". Using this distinction, we must say that the simple sentence is a sentence in which only one predicative line is expressed.

Thus, the syntactic feature of strict monopredication should serve as the basic diagnostic criterion for identifying the simple sentence in contrast to sentences of composite structures of various systemic standings.

The simple sentence, as any sentence in general, is organized as a system of function-expressing positions, the content of the functions being the reflection of a situational event. The nominative parts of the simple sentence, each occupying a notional position in it, are subject, predicate, object, adverbial, attribute, parenthetical enclosure, addressing enclosure; a special, semi-notional position is occupied by an interjectional enclosure. The parts are arranged in a hierarchy, wherein all of them perform some modifying role. The ultimate and highest object of this integral modification is the sentence as a whole, and through the sentence, the reflection of the situation (situational event).

Thus, the subject is a person-modifier of the predicate. The predicate is a process-modifier of the subject-person. The object is a substance-modifier of a processual part (actional or statal). The adverbial is a quality-modifier (in a broad sense) of a processual part or the whole of the sentence (as expressing an integral process inherent in the reflected event). The attribute is a quality-modifier of a substantive part. The parenthetical enclosure is a detached speaker-bound modifier of any sentence-part or the whole of the sentence. The addressing enclosure (address) is a substantive modifier of the destination of the sentence and hence, from its angle, a modifier of the sentence as a whole. The interjectional enclo-sure is a speaker-bound emotional modifier of the sentence.

All the said modifiers may be expressed either singly (single modifiers) or collectively, i.e. in a coordinative combination (co-modifiers, in particular, homogeneous ones).

The traditional scheme of sentence parsing shows many essential traits of the said functional hierarchy. On the scheme presented graphically, sentence parts connected by bonds of immediate domination are placed one under the other in a successive order of subordination, while sentence parts related to one another equipotently are placed in a horizontal order.

Another scheme of analysis called the "model of immediate constituents" (contractedly, the "IC-model"). The model of immediate constituents is based on the group-parsing of the sentence which has been developed by traditional grammar together with the sentence-part parsing scheme. It consists in dividing the whole of the sentence into two groups: that of the subject and that of the predicate, which, in their turn, are divided into their sub-group constituents according to the successive subordinative order of the latter. Profiting by this type of analysis, the IC-model explicitly exposes the binary hierarchical principle of subordinative connections, show-

ing the whole structure of the sentence as made up by binary immediate constituents. As for equipotent (coordinative) connections, these .are, naturally, non-binary, but being of a more primitive character than subordinative connections, they are included in the analysis as possible inner subdivisions of subordinative connections.

31 It's common in grammatical theory to distinguish between principal and secondary parts of the sentence. The subject and the predicate are regarded as the principal parts of the sentence while an object, an attribute, and an adverbial modifier are secondary parts of the sentence.

Thus, in syntax as well as in morphology we deal with the system of opposition in connection with the parts of the sentence. This opposition is justified by the difference in the functions of these parts of the sentence. The subject and predicate make predication and therefore constitute the sentence while the secondary parts serve to extend predication by being added to the words which make predication and build up the sentence in accordance with their combinability as words.

The SubjectThe definition of the subject must contain the following items:

1) the meaning of the subject, i.e. its relation to the thought expressed in a sentence;

2) the syntactical relation of the subject in a sentence;

3) the morphological realization of the subject.

In accordance with these points we may define the subject as one of the principal pans of the sentence which denotes the thing or the person whose action or characteristics is expressed bv the predicate and which does not depend upon other parts of the sentence.The subject may be expressed by different parts of speech.

The Predicate

The predicate is one of the two principal parts of the sentence which denotes an action or property of a thing or a person, expressed by the subject. The predicate does not depend on any other part of the sentence. The predicate may be classified into two ways, one of which is based on its structure and the other is based on the morphological characteristics of the predicate. If we take the structural classification as the basic one. we shall have the following types: the simple predicate and the compound predicate.

From the point of view of its morphological realization the simple predicate may be subdivided into the simple verbal predicate and the nominal simple predicate.

Classification of Sentences

I. In accordance with the purpose of utterance or types of communication sentences may be: declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory.

In a declarative sentence which may be either affirmative or negative the speaker affirms or negates a certain fact. e.g. She is a good student. It's not goina to ram today.

In an interrogative sentence a question is contained. There are different types of questions: general, special, disjunctive, alternative. There are also sentences which are called semi-interrogative, in which the question is implied but the order of words is direct and no interrogative word is used, e.g. Oh. you've seen him

Imperative sentences convey order, command, request, etc. They are characterized by the usage of a verb in the form of the imperative mood. Their intonation is also specific. Imperative sentences also show marked peculiarities in the usage of modal words and modal verbs. As a matter of fact modal words and modal verbs are never used in imperative sentences because their meaning is incompatible with the notion of order or request. And more than that modality in imperative sentences is expressed grammatically mainly by the forms of the imperative mood.

Exclamatory sentences serve to express feelings and emotions. They are mostly marked by a specific structure. The words what, /гон; such usuallv open the exclamatory sentences but the order of words is direct, e.s. What a lovely day it was!

II. According to the structure sentences are divided into simple and composite. They also may be:

1) two-member sentences:

2) one-member sentences:

Elliptical sentences.

1. In a two-member sentence the subject and the predicate are expressed grammatically, e.g. She helped me greatly.

2. In a one-member sentence we deal with such a part of sentence which is neither the subject nor the predicate because the idea of the subject and the predicate may be justified only from the point of view of these phenomena existing together, i.e. the subject and the predicate may exist only in connection and comparison with each other. That is why Academician Vinogradov suggested that the part of a one-member sentence should be termed as the principle part without any distinctions whether it is a subject or a predicate. In English the principle part of a one-member sentence maybe expressed by this or that nominal part of speech by an infinitive or a verb in the form of the imperative mood. Accordingly we may distinguish three types of one-member sentences:

1) Nominative: Morning, grey and foggy.

2) Infinitive: To put a child in that position! Only to think of it! Why not go there immediately9

3) Imperative: Stop talking! Don't laugh at her!

4) By words of affirmation or negation and modal words:

- Do you know her? - Yes.

- You'll let me go? - No.

- But. mother, do you really think it's a good idea? - Certainly.

5) By set expressions of polite address: Thank you! Sony! Please. Never mind. Not at all.

E.g.: - Have a drink? - Thanks, very much!

One-member sentences in English differ to some extent from one-member sentences in Russian. A one-member sentence in Russian may be sometimes impersonal while in English an impersonal sentence is always a two-member sentence: It is cold. Холодно. The difference is explained by the structure of English as an analytical language.

3. Elliptical sentence cause a very prolonged discussion and study both in General linguistics and in English Grammar. Traditionally they are treated as incomplete sentences and have always been studied on the basis of comparison with the so-called complete one- and two-member sentences. They are looked upon as sentences in which this or that part is omitted and could be easily replaced. Academician Vmogradov was the first to consider them as specific structures which differ greatly from one- and two-member sentences. He treated them as sentences in which something is omitted and something may be added. Later on this question was investigated by other grammarians. The viewpoint has been advanced that elliptical sentences are specific sentence structures functioning in dialogues or monologues in which they are always connected semantically and structurally with other sentences. So in these sentences nothing is omitted and nothing may be added without destroying the meaning or structure of the elliptical sentence. And therefore anv addition to the structure of the elliptical sentence is neither necessary nor possible, e.g.

- Have you ever been there - Never.

- How old are you? - Twenty-five.

Simple and Composite Sentences

Sentences may also be simple and composite.

A simple sentence is a separate two-member or one-member sentence or a part of a compound sentence. (The parts of a complex sentence are called clauses).

E.g. The sound of a piano came faintly from below.

Composite sentences may be divided into:

1. Compound sentences which contain two or more coordinated simple sentences, e.g.

It was full late for the river, but the weather was lovely and summer lingered bellow the yellowing leaves.

2. Complex sentences contain a principle clause and one or more subordinate clauses, e.g. I don't quite understand

when you speak about the what you mean man j whom I have never clapped eyes on.

3. Mixed sentences called sometimes compound sentences with subordinate clauses or even compound complex containing compound sentences which may have subordinate clauses, e.g. Dessie was tired, too, and the blisters on her hands made digging so painful that she could hardly bear to hold the spade.

34 Complex Sentences.

The Complex Sentence is a polypredicative construction built up on the principle of subordination. The Complex Sentence of minimal composition includes two clauses - a principal one and a subordinate one. Although the principal clause positionally dominates the subordinate clause, the two form a semantico-syntactic unity, in which they are interconnected.

The subordinate clause is joined to the principal one either by a subordinating connector (subordinator) or asyndetically.

The principles of classification:

Subject- object –attributive- adverbial-functional

1)The subject clause expresses the theme of the actual division of a complex sentence.

Ex.What he would do next was not even spoken of.

2)The object clause denotes an object-situation of the process.

Ex. She cannot imagine what you are doing there.

3)Attributive clauses express some characteristics. Ex. I shook out my scarf which was damp.

4)Clauses of adverbial positions constitute a vast domain of syntax which falls into many subdivisions.

5)The predicative clause performs the function of the nominal part of the nominal part of the predicate, i.e. the part adjoining the link-verb (be, seem, look).

Ex. Work is what keeps life going. My only terror was lest my father should follow me. Lignose looked as though a sculptor had moulded it.

The Complex Sentence

It is a sentence containing at least one subordinate clause. The principal clauses of complex sentences are usually not classified though their meaning is not completely independent and is somehow connected with the meaning of a subordinate clause.

E.g. He will come because he needs your help. He will come if he needs your help.

Subordinate clauses are classified on the basis of two principles, i.e. their meaning and relations to the word of the principal clause they are attached to. The second principle deals with the syntactical functions of the subordinate clauses.

Some grammarians classify subordinate clauses not on the basis of their meaning and their syntactical functions but in accordance with their identity to some part of speech with similar combinability.

E.g. When he left this placets very important. I don't know when he left this place.

The combinability of the subject subordinate clause in the first sentence and the object subordinate clause in the second resembles the combinability of a noun or a pronoun.

According!} there are the folllowing types of the subordinate clauses:

1. Subject clauses introduced by:

a) conjunctions: that, whether, if;

b) conjunctive pronouns: who. what, which;

c) conjunctive adverbs: when, where, how. whv. E.g.: What I need is a good car.

2. Predicative clauses introduced by:

a) conjunctions: that, whether, if, as. as if:

b) conjunctive pronouns: who, what, which;

c) conjunctive adverbs: when, where, how, why. E.g.: That is why he left this place.

3. Object clauses introduced by:

a) conjunctions: that, if, whether, lest;

b) conjunctive pronouns: who, what, which;

c) conjunctive adverbs: when, where, how. whv. E.g.: I don't know why I hate the man so much.

4. Attributive clauses introduced by:

a) relative pronouns: who, whose, which, that, as;

b) relative adverbs: where, when;

The Compound Sentence

It consists of two or several coordinate clauses which are joined to form one syntactical whole both in meaning and in intonation. For when taken separately the coordinate clauses always use some part of their meaning and become different sentences.

On the one hand any clause within a compound sentence remains on the same level of independence as any other clause and has the cause of independent proposition in the terminology suggested by Curme.

On the other hand in the clauses coordinated within a compound sentence the first clause in order is structurally more independent and the clause which follows it is more dependent as it contains anaphoric pronoun which points to the previous clause or its parts. It also may be elliptical and in this

clause there may be different substitutors, e.g.

Christin bit her lip and her worried look increased (two independent clauses, her is a substitute instead of Christin, which shows dependence of the second sentence to the first).

They had every excuse for turning into the lane but they did not do it (it is an anaphoric pronoun substituting but they did not do it).

Besides the fact that the conjunction is usually incerted in the body of the second clause it also makes it grammatically connected with the preceding clause, e.g. The firing had quieted down and the larks were singing overhead in the pure sky (two coordinated clauses).

Coordination reflects the logical sequence of thoughts, i.e. the clauses follow each other in the same order as thoughts do whereas in subordination the position of the subordinate clause is always determined by structural considerations or by whatever word in the main clause the subordinate one referes to. The order in which the coordinated clauses follow each other cannot be changed without detriment to the meaning of the whole sentence. The logical relations between coordinated clauses are based on their mutual dependence.

Coordination comprises the following types of connections: copulative, disjunctive, adversative and causal-consecutive connection. These relations are always understood from the context, i.e. the}' result from the meaning of both the joined sentences.

Grammatically these relations are expressed not only by special coordinating conjuctions or other connectives but also by the intonation, by the order in which the clauses follow each other, by anaphoric pronouns which refer back to what is expressed in the preceding clause and will necessarily serve in some degree as a sertain connective between the two clauses.

These relations may be also expressed by the grammatical forms and meanings of the predicates in both the clauses.

Whenever the clauses are joined by conjunctions the latter are used to support the existing relations. The clauses within a compound sentence may be joined by the following coordinativc connectives:

1. The copulative connection: and, both and, not only, but also, neither... nor. etc. Here conjunctive adverbs may be used; likewise, besides, thus, again, etc. or conjunctive particles: also, too, either, even.

2. Disjunctive connection: or, either... or, otherwise, else.

3. Adversative connection: conjunctions: but, while, whereas, not, that: conjunctive adverbs: however, yet, still: conjunctive particle: only.

4. The causal-consecutive: conjuctions: /o/; so, so ... that: conjunctive adverbs: therefore, hence, accordingly.

The parts of a compound sentence may also be joined asyndatically.

The absence of a formal connective or link does not change anything as other means and logical connection form a sufficiant tie between independent coordinative clauses. Therefore, asyndatically connected clauses are also not absolutely independent and in most respects do not differ from syndatically connected clauses, e.g. A sharp keen wind blew against us, a hard frost prevailed on shoe, and the cold was most severe (there are three independent clauses).