ПОЗНАВАТЕЛЬНОЕ

Оси и плоскости тела человека - Тело человека состоит из определенных топографических частей и участков, в которых расположены органы, мышцы, сосуды, нервы и т.д.

Отёска стен и прирубка косяков - Когда на доме не достаёт окон и дверей, красивое высокое крыльцо ещё только в воображении, приходится подниматься с улицы в дом по трапу.

Дифференциальные уравнения второго порядка (модель рынка с прогнозируемыми ценами) - В простых моделях рынка спрос и предложение обычно полагают зависящими только от текущей цены на товар.

Образование национального английского языка.

Lecture 1

Old Germanic languages

There exist over 2000 languages in the world. They are classified according to different principles. We are interested in the genealogical classification as it unites languages according to their origin from a common linguistic ancestor.

The English language belongs to the Germanic subdivision of the Indo-European family of languages. It is spoken in GB, USA, Canada and etc. The total number of people speaking Germanic languages is over 440 mln.

The history of Germanic group begins with the appearance of Proto Germanic language. It is the linguistic ancestor of the parent language of the Germanic group. It was split from the Indo-European languages between the XV – X th centuries B.C.

The Germanic languages are as follows: English, German, Netherlandish, Africaans, Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, Icelandic, Frisian, Faroese and Yiddish. All the Germanic languages are related through their common origin and joint development at the early stages of their development. At the beginning of AD Germanic tribes occupied territories in western, central and northern Europe. The dialects they spoke were very much alike. But they are subdivided into several groups of dialects: East Germanic group of dialects – spoken in central Europe, North Germanic group – old Norwegian, Old Danish, Old Swedish, Old Icelandic; and the West Germanic group of dialects – the dialects of Angles, Saxons, Jutes, Frisians and others.

Proto-Germanic languages (Teutonic)

East-Germanic languages West Germanic languages North-Germanic languages

Gothic Old Germanic Old Swedish

Old English Old Norwegian

Old Saxon Old Icelandic

Frisian Old Danish

Old English. General characteristics

A living language can never be static, it develops together with the people who speak it. The historical development of language is made up of different facts and processes. In the first place, it includes the structural development of the language system. The structural development is usually presented in accordance with the division of language into linguistic levels: phonological level, morphological, syntactic and lexical level. So the history of the language can be subdivided into historical phonetics, historical morphology, historical syntax and historical lexicology.

The history of the English language is generally subdivided into Old English (5^th -11^th century), Middle English (11^th - 15^th century) and New English (15^th -till now).

Inner and outer history of the language. The outer history of the language is the events in the life of the people speaking this language, i.e. the history of the people is reflected in their language. The inner history of the language is the description of the changes in the language itself: grammar, phonetics, vocabulary and spelling.

Outer history

As we have already said, the forefathers of the English nation belonged to the western subdivision of old Germanic tribes, and the dialects they spoke later lay the foundation of the English national language.

The history of the English language begins in the fifth century AD. The barbaric Germanic tribes of Angles, Saxons, Jutes, Frisians, who up to that time had lived in Western Europe between the Elbe and the Rhine, started their invasion of the British Isles.

At the time of the invasion Britain was inhabited by "romanised Celts", that is, Celts who had lived under the Roman rule for over four centuries and who had acquired Roman culture and ways of life and whose language had undergone certain changes mainly in the form of borrowings from the Latin language.

The Celtic tribes, whose languages, the same as Germanic, also belonged to the Indo-European family, were at one time among its most numerous representatives. At the beginning of our era the Celts could be found on the territories of the present-day Spain, Great Britain, western Germany and northern Italy. Before that, they had been known to reach even Greece and Asia Minor. But under the steady attacks of Italic and Germanic tribes the Celts had to retreat, so that in the areas where they were once dominant they have left the trace of their presence.

The Celts who first came to Britain gradually spread to Ireland, Scotland and the Isle of Man. Their 1anguаgе represented in modern times by Irish, Scottish Gaelic and Manx. А later wave of Celtic tribes, having occupied the central part of England, were in turn driven to the west by Germanic invaders, and their modern language representatives are Welsh, Cornish and Breton.

In 55 BC the Romans under Julius Caesar first landed in Britain. The first appearance of the Romans in Britain had no further consequences: after a brief stay they left the country. In 54 BC Caesar landed in Britain for the second time, but it was a short stay again.

Permanent conquest of Britain began in 43 AD under the emperor Claudius. The Romans subdued the Britons and colonized the country, establishing many military camps, which developed into cities. About 80 AD the Romans reached the rivers Clyde and Forth. Thus, they occupied a territory including the modern cities Edinburgh and Glasgow. In this period Britain became a Roman province. The Latin language superseded the Celtic dialects in towns and spread over the countryside. In the 4^th century when Christianity was introduced in the Roman Empire, it also spread among the Britons. The Romans ruled Britain for almost 4 hundred years up to the early 5^th century.

The Roman occupation of England left little mark on its future. Most of what the Romans did perished after theyleft, so it is with the Germanic tribes that the history of England truly begins.

The invaders or Barbarians, as they were generally called, whо came to the Isles were representatives of thе most backward and primitive of the Germanic tribes.

The invaders came to Britain in hosts consisting not only of warrioгs, hut also including labourеrs: women and children. They plundered the country. took possession of almost all the fertile lands there and partly exterminated, and partly drove away the native population to the less inhabited mountaiIious parts of the country - Cornwall, Wales, Scotland. The rest of the natives became slaves to the conquerors.

It is quite clear why the language of the invaders underwent so few changes under the influence of the Celtic tongue as almost no normal intercourse between the invaded and the invaders was possible.

It should be noted that nowadays the remnants f the Celtic group of languages face the threat of complete disappearance.

We have very little evidence about the beginning of the old English period -5-7^th centuries. The first written document was dated back to the 8^th century, that is why this period is referred to as the pre-written period of the English language. In OE 2 alphebits were used: the Runic and the Latin. A few Runic documents have come down to us. One is Ruthwell Cross, a religious poem on a stone cross inscotland. Another is the Runic Casket,found in France. After the Anglo-Saxsons came into contact with Roman cultue the Runic Alphabet was superseded by the Latin but They borrowed some letters from the Runic alphabet.

Since the very earliest time there were three main dialects in OE: Northumbrian spoken by Angles spoken north to the Humber, West Saxon, the language of Saxons south of the Thames, Mercian between the Humber and the Thames and Kentishthe language of the Jutes. In the course of the 9^th century there was the rise ofthe West Sxon dialect and it became the literary language of that time.

The West saxon dialect is represented by the works of the king Alfred and by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. The Northumbrian dialect: the Runic texts of the Ruthwell Cross and Frank's Casket. The Mercian dialect: translation of the Psalter (9^th century) and hymns. The kentish dialect: translation of Psalms and old charters.

Внешняя история.

1.1. Скандинавское вторжение.Скандинавское вторжение продолжалось в течение более двух веков, с конца 8 по начало 11 века, когда под контроль завоевателей перешла вся Англия. Скандинавское вторжение и последовавшее за ним переселение скандинавов на территорию Англии, их постоянные контакты и смешение с местным населением оказали глубокое воздействие на все аспекты английского языка. Относительная легкость взаимопроникновения языков объяснялась отсутствием каких-либо политических, социальных, культурных или языковых барьеров между их носителями.

1.2. Норманнское завоевание.Началом норманнского завоевании считается 1066 год. Норманны, скандинавское племя, переселившееся за два века до этого на территорию современной Франции, восприняли язык и культуру своей новой страны, и именно французский язык они принесли с собой на Британские острова.

В результате норманнского завоевания французский язык ни два с лишним века стал языком правящих классов, языком королевскою двора, парламента, судопроизводства, церкви и школы, отодвину» английский на второй план. Восстановление утраченной роли английского языка в 14 веке сопровождалось большим количеством заимствований из французского и существенным изменением грамматической структуры языка.

Образование национального английского языка.

Национальный английский язык сложился к 15 веку на базе лондонского диалекта, сформировавшегося из ранних южных и юго-восточных диалектов. Столица Англии, начиная с 11 века, Лондон был крупнейшим экономическим, политическим, а также культурным центром, в котором жили и работали многие лучшие писатели и поэты того времени. Однако литературная норма языка возникла гораздо позднее, только в новоанглийский период.

2. Внутренняя история. Среднеанглийский период был временем беспрецедентно быстрого развития языка. Этому способствовало то, что в течение первых трех веков периода английский был исключительно устным языком, не имел письменной нормы и мог изменяться без существенных ограничений. В результате все аспекты языка претерпели фундаментальные изменения.

2.1. Фонетические особенности. Фиксированное динамическое ударение сохраняется в исконных словах, в заимствованиях (особенно французских) ударение падает на последний слог слова.

Появляются новые согласные (фрикативные и аффрикаты). Качество согласных перестает быть позиционным.

Ударные гласные претерпевают количественные изменения под влиянием так называемой ритмической тенденции, усредняющей длительность слога.

2.2. Грамматические особенности. Грамматический строй в среднеанглийский период претерпевает фундаментальные изменения, превращая синтетический древнеанглийский язык в язык аналитического строя. Возникающие аналитические средства передачи грамматических значений в конце периода становятся доминирующими.

2.3. Словарный состав. Словарный состав языка в течение среднеанглийского периода почти полностью обновился за счёт чрезвычайно большого числа заимствований, главным образом скандинавских и французских. Наряду с внешними источниками пополнения словаря определенную роль играли и внутренние - в том числе образование производных слов с использованием исконных и заимствованных элементов.